Nursing research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 20

Nursing research - Essay Example In such manner, the inspiration procedure guarantees that execution of the change procedure stayed on target and every partner assumed a powerful job in guaranteeing its prosperity. It is essential to stimulate staff associated with the procedure of progress. In the first place, the incitement procedure ought to include a limit building meeting whereby the staff experiences the prerequisites of the change procedure with every part distinguishing the necessities and the obligations that they should play in guaranteeing effective usage. In accordance with this, the limit building meeting will likewise go about as a group assembling exertion whereby colleagues will meet up and be steady of one another during the change execution process. Furthermore, every day gatherings that will include staff individuals discussing the difficulties in the execution procedure are critical in guaranteeing that all individuals were steady of each other’s endeavors in the usage procedure. As a result, individuals will enable each other to distinguish the methods of settling these difficulties and guarantee fruitful usage of the change

Peer Review Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

History assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

History task - Essay Example e men were associated with British imports blacklist battles during the progressive time frame and began requesting for increasingly financial jobs and political force after the insurgency. Women's activist scholars, for example, Judith Murray interest for equivalent democratic rights and portrayal of ladies in government (Foner 99). The white men were minimal recipients of American Revolution since an enormous populace was currently engaged with the democratic procedure and open authorities were presently chosen by the individuals. The cooperation of littler craftsmans, ranchers and workers in authoritative issues lessened the intensity of the world class white men (Foner 177). The Native Americans attempted to keep up nonpartisanship at the beginning of the Revolution, however a free America represented a threat to their inclinations since American Westward extension would influence their lifestyle. The progressive War isolated the Indian clans because of different bargains marked with British and disappointment with settlements allotted in Appalachian mountain. The Native Americans lost significant piece of their property and were censured for aligning with Britain (Foner 58). The American Revolution changed the perspectives of the gatherings since underestimated gatherings, for example, ladies and slaves drew their motivations from the progressive opinions to interest for fairness and incorporation in the general public. The White men lost political force while Native Americans lost their territory to the new United

20 Slang Terms for Law Enforcement Personnel

20 Slang Terms for Law Enforcement Personnel 20 Slang Terms for Law Enforcement Personnel 20 Slang Terms for Law Enforcement Personnel By Mark Nichol An assortment of pretty much beautiful sayings alluding to cops and comparative position figures have created in American English, some of the time enlivened by different dialects. Here is a rundown of such terms. 1. barney: This tenderly critical term alludes to Barney Fife, a blundering humble community representative sheriff in the exemplary 1960s sitcom The Andy Griffith Show. 2. bear: This term, from truckers’ slang, suggests a style of cap worn by some law authorization faculty one that takes after the one worn by fire-wellbeing symbol Smokey the Bear. (See additionally Smokey.) 3. the young men dressed in blue: This folksy expression alludes to the regular utilization of blue as the shade of a police officer’s uniform-and looks back to when no one but men could become cops. 4. bull: a term predominant in the primary portion of the twentieth century, principally alluding to railroad police yet relating to standard cops also and suggesting the forcefulness of these authorities. 5. cop: A truncation of copper from British English utilization, alluding to somebody who cops, or catches. 6. dick: An unfavorable shortening of investigator. 7. federales: Originally a Spanish expression for government police in Mexico, however facetiously utilized in the United States to allude to police as a rule. 8. the feds: A truncation of government, alluding to administrative law requirement faculty. 9. five-O: An expression for police got from the title of the TV arrangement Hawaii Five-O, about an extraordinary police unit by that name. 10. flatfoot: A reference to a cop, with a few potential starting points, including the affiliation that police who strolled a beat evidently would get the ailment of level feet. 11. fluff: Originally a British English term alluding to felt-secured protective caps worn by London cops, later obtained into American English. 12. G-man: A term (got from â€Å"government man†) from the mid-twentieth century, alluding to FBI operators. 13. gendarmes: Originally a French expression for provincial cops, obtained into American English as facetious slang. 14. gumshoe: A term insinuating delicate soled shoes worn by analysts that are more agreeable than hard-soled shoes or potentially empower them to follow suspects clandestinely. 15. the warmth: A reference to the weight that law implementation authorities apply to suspects. 16. the law: An aggregate term for law authorization. 17. the man: A term insinuating the impressive authority of law implementation work force. 18. pig: A harsh term going back to the 1800s that fell into neglect yet was resuscitated during the social liberties time. 19. po-po: A reduplicative term alluding to cops. 20. Smokey: An expression for law requirement work force, got from a relationship of the style of cap worn by some state troopers with the one worn by Smokey the Bear. Need to improve your English in a short time a day? Get a membership and begin accepting our composing tips and activities day by day! Continue learning! Peruse the Vocabulary classification, check our well known posts, or pick a related post below:20 Great Opening Lines to Inspire the Start of Your StoryBody Parts as Tools of MeasurementIs Number Singular or Plural?

Cultural knowledge

Social information is vital for contemporary society, in light of the fact that in the worldwide world it is important to set agreeable relations and working contacts with all the way of life and nations. A potential schoolmate for me is Chinese understudy, since Chinese culture is fundamentally unique in relation to other people and I would have the option to learn new things, thoughts, center convictions from Chinese student.I realize that Chinese culture is one of the most established on the planet and, in this manner, it is extremely worth inspecting and contemplating. It is fascinating to find out about Chinese family esteems and conviction, correspondence quirks, about monetary and political goals of the nation just as about their recreation time.Thus, Chinese understudy would unquestionably help me in growing my social information. Chinese individuals are ostensibly limited, since they are affected by Confucius' philosophical reasoning and along these lines they are increasing ly held in verbal and nonverbal communication.Emotional signals and non-verbal communication is less expressive as contrasted and Cuba or Brasilia, for instance. Concerning me, I am informative individual and it is fascinating for me get to know totally unique behavior.I realize that there are unconventional qualities in Chinese culture and I figure we should give extraordinary consideration and, perhaps, even to embrace them. For instance, family is viewed as the premise of Chinese culture, particularly more distant families, when a few ages are living respectively in one house.The senior age is regarded for their astuteness and for the most part they are furnished with acceptable annuities contrasted and that in different nations. Know that Chinese relatives will in general work as a group living under one rooftop as it is referenced above.The family government assistance is contributed by each relative, either youthful or senior. I comprehend that we ought to follow Chinese in sp ecific conventions, customs.  So, I would be furnished with a chance to receive some Chinese qualities just as to impart my way of life and my insight to Chinese understudy. Moreover, they are considered non-struggle people.ReferencesCountry’s Profile: China. Recovered January 17, 2007, from http://www.cp-pc.ca/english/china/index.html

Getting A Good List Of Essay Topics

Getting A Good List Of Essay TopicsThe Persuasion Essay topic can be a hard one to tackle. It may take a lot of thought and planning before you have a really good idea about what you want to say. The advantage of having a list of Persuasion Essay Topics that you can choose from is that it will make this process a lot easier. This list of topics will enable you to determine exactly what areas you want to discuss, as well as the order in which you will do it.If you are planning on writing a one hundred page essay, you may find that it can be a lot easier if you use essay topics that are related to your topic area. It could be a general topic or a specific one. You may choose to start off by writing a general essay topic, and then continue it by writing a more specific one.One of the advantages of using essay topics that are related to your topic is that you will be able to compare your essay to some of the topics on the list. This will help you see which ones are more interesting to yo u, and which ones you should stick with. If you have a list of essay topics that relate to your topic, you will be better able to determine which ones will work best for you.If you are writing a really long essay, you may want to choose essay topics that you know you will want to include in your essay. This will allow you to use more variety within your essay. You may choose to go through a topic at a time, or even write more than one essay.When it comes to choosing essay topics, you may find that they are not available online. However, you may find that there are several books that you can purchase that provide sample essays that you can use. This way, you can get a feel for how many topics you need to cover, and how many topics will fit into your essay.You may also find that you do not have enough time to write out essay topics. Even though you might be planning on having several hundred to several thousand words, it may be difficult to fit it all into a couple of days. To solve t his problem, you may want to consider going through an outline for the essay before you actually start writing it.The outline allows you to have a rough idea of where your essay is going to end up. You can look at it as a map that will allow you to find your way through the maze. This way, you can work on your essay topic and not worry about the details of it until the time is right.You can use essay topics that you already know will work for you, or you can choose topic ideas that you never thought about. The advantages of having a good list of essay topics is that you will be able to determine which ones will be good for you. You can use it to your advantage, rather than worrying about where your essay is going to go.

My Experience With A Learning Disability - 1948 Words

Sitting in class, I could not help but look around and notice that everyone else knew what they were doing while I just sat there silently, pretending to fit in. I had no clue what I was supposed to be doing because I did not really understand the lesson the teacher had just finished teaching. I didn’t want to ask a question because it seemed like I was the only one that was lost, so instead, I just sat at my desk with my head down and pretended to write on my paper. I have repeated this scenario on numerous occasions. In 5th grade, I was diagnosed with a learning disability which affected the way I learned and my ability to understand what others around me said. My mom noticed that I was working really hard to accomplish the same work that other kids my age did with less effort and in a shorter amount of time. We saw a psychologist who sent me to a specialist who diagnosed me with a learning disability in central auditory processing, and also had a very weak short term me mory. Basically, this means that my brain processes information slower than the average. Although my hearing is normal, it takes my brain longer to comprehend what I hear and then process it. Sometimes I miss parts of what people say because my brain is not able to understand everything that is being said all at once so I need directions written down or given slowly in order to truly comprehend. Although I struggled academically, I was not able to qualify for school services at the time according toShow MoreRelatedThe Prevention Of Abuse Experience By People With A Learning Disability1377 Words   |  6 Pagescollected were relevant and simple statistical analysis was used to analyse the result. However, studies such as (Hewitt, 2014) conducted a qualitative study on experience of people with learning on abuse which can be classified as phenomenon. Hewitt (2014) study was based on the prevention of abuse experience by people with a learning disability. The study focused on the prevalence of abuse, the planning and service development to prevent abuse. The study used relevant literatures and the abstract wereRead MoreSpecial Education Reflection1329 Words   |  6 PagesIndividuals with Special Needs) has been enlightening for me as a secondary mathematics educator. In the beginning of the semester, my feelings towards special education were those of apathy and insensitiv ity. I now understand that my feelings were due to my lack of knowledge and my judgment based on stereotypes. I always knew that making fun of students with learning disabilities was wrong. However, I never felt that inclusion of special education students in general education classes was plausible orRead MoreInclusion For Special Needs Students Essay1633 Words   |  7 Pagestoday’s classroom. However, there is still a lack of inclusion for special needs students in general classroom settings. My interest in this topic stems from my major in EC-6, Special Education. My goal is to work with students with special needs. It is important to integrate students with disabilities in classrooms with students without disabilities. By allowing students with disabilities to have access to a general education will enable them to obtain an equal education that is catered to their levelRead MoreEssay on Special Education Reflection1336 Words   |  6 PagesIndividuals with Special Needs) has been enlightening for me as a secondary mathematics educator. In the beginning of the semester, my feel ings towards special education were those of apathy and insensitivity. I now understand that my feelings were due to my lack of knowledge and my judgment based on stereotypes. I always knew that making fun of students with learning disabilities was wrong. However, I never felt that inclusion of special education students in general education classes was plausible or madeRead MoreInclusion For Special Needs Students Essay1630 Words   |  7 Pagescurriculum in today’s classroom. However, there is still a lack of inclusion for special needs students in general classroom settings. My interest in this topic stems from my major in EC-6, Special Education. My goal is to work with students with special needs. It is important to integrate students with disabilities in classrooms with students without disabilities. This early introduction of differences among students will further broaden students ideas of diversity, acceptance and understanding theRead MoreService Learning Research and Reflection paper1354 Words   |  6 PagesAbility/Disability continuum. Some of the categories for exceptional students are the: intellectually gifted, specific learning d isability, emotionally handicapped, hearing impaired, visually impaired, mentally handicapped, and physically handicapped. In this paper the specific type of students that will be discussed, fall under the disabled side of the continuum. As one can see from the list above there are various types of disabilities that can affect students. One of the disabilities that affectRead MoreThe Prevalence Of Childhood Disability967 Words   |  4 Pageschildhood disability has continued to increase, growing by 15.6% between 2001–2002 and 2010–2011. Nearly 6 million children were considered disabled in 2010–2011.†Houtrow(2014) The United States civilians have had a negative attitude toward people with disabilities. Donaldson(1980) says that they are attempting to change the attitudes towards people with disabilities. Donaldson states one way they are attempting to change attitudes is by passing legislation to help integrate people with disabilities intoRead MoreInter ventions Are A Necessary Asset Intended For Achieving Success Within Any Classroom981 Words   |  4 Pagesstudents with learning disabilities. Throughout my course and classroom experiences I have studied, identified, and observed a multitude of effective intervention strategies. Various texts, professors, and education professionals have helped to enlighten me in regards to the necessity of flexible and consistent interventions. In analyzing my prior experiences, I anticipate applying three particularly effective intervention strategies when assisting students with a learning disability. Students withRead MoreI Am Observing For The After School Action Program Essay1724 Words   |  7 Pages12 students, which 4 students have learning disabilities. Research has been conducted by my observation of various techniques implemented for the inclusion of these students. During my observation, several approaches have been used with success in retaining students understanding of the ma terial being presented. First, as a student whose major is ECL-6 Special Education, I want to study different approaches to which teachers implement on students with disabilities. Secondly, as I continue to observeRead MoreEssay on How Difficult Can This Be? F.A.T. City Workshop672 Words   |  3 Pagesinformation from the video and apply it to my everyday tasks in my future classroom. Starting from the beginning of the film with the â€Å"Difficult Times to Processing† section it allows me to understand students with learning disabilities have twice as much to process, question and answer so they need more time. The â€Å"Risk Taking† section taught me how students with learning disabilities like reassurance and do not like surprises. If I have a student with a learning disability, I would make sure they knew ahead

Organizational Development and Device Managment, List of...

Organizational development can be defined as a systematic process of planning in which to apply scientific principles and practice behaviour are introduced in the organization, towards the goal to increase individual and organizational effectiveness. Organizational development is related to device management of an organization with a method of bringing about organizational change and has a special approach which lays claim to being much more than just another recipe for change management. Organizational development has much in common with other approaches in organizations, it theoretically has a number of characteristics which are: A planned, Medium-to Long-term strategy. A systematic and systematic focus. Process-orientated focus. A†¦show more content†¦Intervention Methods - These are the selected ways of delivering the objectives of the intervention,particularly those concerned with bringing about change in people. Implementation and Evaluation - Depending on the methods employed,this can be a lenghty process.However,in order to determine whether it has achieved its objectives,and if not to identify further problems that need to be resolved,it is vital to monitor the success of this stage. Feedback - All boxes in the model are related to feedback. This idea shows that organizational development is not an exact science but in which the selection of appropriate goals and methods of intervention depends on the quality of diagnosis problems. 2.Intergroup Level(interventions): Intervention of this level usually included in an attempt to change perceptions and attitudes that keep groups for one another. 2.1. Intergroup confrontation - In this approach, two groups that have a working relationship conflict with a change agent to solve problems undertake two steps. The first step in this process is usually to groups that already meetShow MoreRelatedHP: Potentials and Limitations Name School Hewlett- Packard has long been regarded as1100 Words   |  5 Pagesforefront of the campaign for sustainable industry and responsible waste management. With the ICT sector (information and communication technologies) contributing to about 2% of the worlds carbon footprints, Hewlett-Packard fully transformed its organizational structure to integrate concepts of sustainability. For instance, responsible water consumption, maximization of conference calling technologies, recycling, etc, have been included in Hewlett-Packards day to day operations. However, for Hewlett-PackardRead MoreThe Success Of A Restaurant Business3521 Words   |  15 Pages Executive summary The success of a firm depends very much on the way the personals there are performing. So the firm have to focus on maintain proper relationship among individuals working there. In doing so, managers need to learn about organizational behavior, why and how individuals behave in a certain situation, and how to influence their behavior. The business I want to do in future is a restaurant business. It will be a traditional UK restaurant with south Asian flavor. The verity ofRead MoreLaudon - Business Information Systems16132 Words   |  65 Pagesfocuses on questions such as behavioral problems of system utilization, implementation and system design, social and organizational impacts of information systems, political impacts of information systems, individual responses to information systems, and cognitive models of human reasoning. Solutions to problems created by information technology are primarily changes in attitudes, managment, organization policy, and behavior. A technical appr oach to information systems emphasizes mathematically basedRead MoreThe Need for Information Security Management for Small to Medium Size Enterprises4582 Words   |  19 PagesUniversity Contents Abstract 2 Introduction 2 Justifying The Need for Sound Information Security in Any Organisation 2 Linking Business Objectives with Security 3 Incident Response Management and Disaster Recovery 4 Mobile Device Security Managment 5 Biometric Security Devices and Their Use 6 Ethical Issues in Information Security Management 7 Security Training and Education 7 Defending Against Internet-Based Attacks 8 Industrial Espionage and Business Intelligence Gathering 9 Personnel IssuesRead MoreInformation Technology Implementation Issues: an Analysis45771 Words   |  184 PagesMarch 24, 1999 Blacksburg, Virginia Copyright 1999, Suzanne Beaumaster Information Technology Implementation Issues: An Analysis Suzanne Beaumaster (ABSTRACT) This research project addresses the issues affecting information technology development and deployment. The issues represented in this study are addressed in the context of IT implementation processes, especially with regard to the question of the needs and perceptions of administrators from the local government arena. In additionRead MoreOrganisational Theory230255 Words   |  922 Pagesinteresting and valuable. Peter Holdt Christensen, Associate Professor, Copenhagen Business School, Denmark McAuley et al.’s book is thought-provoking, witty and highly relevant for understanding contemporary organizational dilemmas. The book engages in an imaginative way with a wealth of organizational concepts and theories as well as provides insightful examples from the practical world of organizations. The authors’ sound scholarship and transparent style of writing set the book apart, making it an ingeniousRead MoreApple and Their Strategy Essay15522 Words   |  63 P ages 4-5 Introduction Reference List 6 Stakeholder Mapping 7-10 Reference List 11 Ansoff’s 12-16 Reference List Read MoreSucess Factors in Merger and Acquisition38351 Words   |  154 Pagesacquisition advisory firms† has been raised. A list of ten critical success factors for MA projects is firstly identified from an extensive literature review. These factors are (1) Complete and Clear objectives, goals and scope of the project, (2) Client consultation and acceptance, (3) Project manager’s competence and commitment, (4) Project team member’s competence and commitment, (5) Communication and information sharing and exchange, (6) Project plan development, (7) MA advisory firm’s resource planningRead MoreStrategic Marketing Management337596 Words   |  1351 Pages1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 Learning objectives Introduction Coming to terms with buyer behaviour Factors influencing consumer behaviour The buying decision process The rise of the new consumer and the implications for marketing plann ing Organizational buying behaviour The growth of relationship marketing Summary Appendix: The drivers of consumer change 6 Approaches to competitor analysis 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 Learning objectives Introduction Against whom are we competingRead MoreTop 1 Cause for Project Failure65023 Words   |  261 Pagesinadequacy of Project Management. 12. [pic] James Soltis, PMP IT Consultant, Information Management Division at Gwinnett County Public Schools I can easily provide examples for every one of the choices, but given the list you ve provided, I would have to say it s been a combination of #1 and #7, which are typically the result of an aversion to the pains of reality. That viewpoint may be a result of my usual role of being hired as a troubleshooter for a failing/failed

Essay about Labor Unions’ Involvement in Politics

External advocacy and political involvement is deeply engrained in the culture of labor unions. Bill Fletcher Jr. writes myth 8: â€Å"the union uses our money for political action and I have no say in the matter,† in his novel â€Å"They’re Bankrupting Us† And 20 Other Myths about Unions. In this myth, Bill Fletcher Jr. addresses unions and how they take political action. Labor unions often take political action in a controversial way, while not always getting full advantage of their work. Fletcher says that when unions and politics come together, people especially interpret unions’ missions and their power critically. He does not expand on how he titles the myth, but skims the surface on union consensus regarding politics. The myth is about the†¦show more content†¦If a member did not support the union’s choice of candidate, the member could easily refuse to give money. Politics within the union movement have narrowed and less people are involved in making decisions, due to the disengagement of members in political affairs. However, at the level of political action, Fletcher states that engagement can only be achieved through dialogue with union members. When members are engaged in political action, their views are respected. From the beginning, union involvement in political and legislative matters has been a component of unions and their external advocacy. When labor unions first began forming, political parties that represented the interests of the workforce began forming as well. However, due to the bipartisan power in the United States, it is hard for third parties to succeed electorally, which ultimately ended the idea of a labor party. This is why the American Federation of Labor believed that labor should not form its own parties, but should lobby the current two-party system. With the lack of a labor party, labor unions often back the Democratic Party, even though Democrats may not always act in favor of the labor force. Some may see lobbying the two parties as counter productive, since the influence of wealth and the corporate world takes some sort of precedence to the labor unions. Although manyShow MoreRelatedThe Los Angeles County Federation Of Labor Essay1702 Words   |  7 Pages The start of the Los Angeles County Federation of Labor Student’s Name Institutional Affiliation Abstract The Los Angeles County Federation of Labor is a regional labor organization in the state of Los Angeles that has evolved representation of the interests of workers to include political involvement. Its formation was a function of political influence in labor and the relevance of merging labor movements to have better representations and high compulsion among leaders (Dean etRead MoreIrish in America Essay1344 Words   |  6 Pagesthe course of American history, bring the the country new cultures, customs and beliefs . Irish-Catholic immigrants, â€Å". . . the first great ethnic ‘minority’ in American cities,†(1) had a substantial influence on the industrialization, labor movement and politics of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In the beginning, life was not easy for the numerous Irish - Catholic immigrants who fled the Great Potato Famine of 1845 and, â€Å". . . Protestant ascendancy, British colonialism and turbulenceRead MoreThe American Dream1480 Words   |  6 Pagesfamine era. The Great Famine forced a countless number of Irish people to immigrate to the United States, where they suffered from poverty and discrimination. Despite all this, the Irish were able to assimilate and reshape American culture through politics and religion. To begin with, the Irish people immigrated to America because much of the population was suffering in Ireland. The Irish had been suffering for centuries, caused by Britain controlling Ireland. As David Levinson and Melvin Ember pointRead MoreThe 1912 Crucial Election1346 Words   |  6 Pagesnew considerable and â€Å"substantive† discussions concerning the Union and its future. These issues included, whether government should expand democracy, apply more control over businesses, and how solve the labor conflict, among others. Each of the four major presidential candidates took a position on these issues, either choosing to support or oppose such changes. The presidential election of 1912 involved aggressive and â€Å"violent† politics. In fact, these candidates offered choices which would beRead MoreHow Successful Was Organized Labor in Improving the Position of Workers in the Period from 1875 to 1900? Analyze the Factors That Contributed to the Level of Success Achieved.1353 Words   |  6 Pagesfight back laborers would join labor unions in order to protest; however, during this time the labor unions were not that affective during 1875 and 1900 because although they had their efforts many of them would not work to their advantage; efforts would give them a bad reputation, go out of control, and the government did not take initiatives to help, hence not accomplishing much at all. Primarily, one of the important factors of the American opinion upon labor unions was the press. One of whichRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book Out Of This Furnace By Thomas Bell1707 Words   |  7 Pagesof three generation of Slovakian immigrants in America enduring poverty, discrimination, exploitation by employers, as well as the development of labor unions. As the story progresses, the novel provides a glimpse of diverse sets of perspectives from Kracha, Mike, and finally Dobie. In examining the character Dobie, his participation in civic labor unions, and in search of his own true identity reveals the more liberal and outspoken new generation of immigrants. Dobie is a son of Mike and Mary DobrejcakRead MoreWomen s Benefits Of Women941 Words   |  4 PagesWomen have started movements in work unions back to the early 1900s, but wasn t a big concern till today.(Bergeron, 2015) Today the movement of labor has changed greatly and has increased in involvement with women. It is difficult for a lower educated person with a visa to look for work because they are looked at as less useful, rather than helpful to a company that doesn t require â€Å"runt work†. Social reduction caused a great shift in domination in work unions and sexual relations has become anRead MoreThe Rise Of Labor Unions Essay1155 Words   |  5 PagesThe main reason of the rise of labor unions was the quick industrialization of the US economy. During the post-Civil War period, the US economy became extremely industrialized. This meant that more and more people were working in factories owned by large companies rather than working in small shops for themselves o r for small businesses. In addition, large numbers of immigrants were coming to the US. They created a huge pool of labor that made labor prices go down and the quality of working conditionsRead MoreEconomic Prosperity During The Soviet Union1670 Words   |  7 Pagesmajor political developments was the Soviet Union. The years of change seemed rather unlikely between 1964 and 1982 as Leonid Brezhnev became the man in charge. As his slogan was â€Å"no experimentation† he became the head of the state and the communist party in 1964. Even though he was optimistic and calm, the Brezhnev Doctrine, which stated that the Soviet Union had the right to intervene if socialism was a threatened in another state, led to Soviet Union troops being deployed in Czechoslovakia in 1968Read MoreDoes America Need Labor Unions Today?2811 Words   |  12 Pages English 102 Section 401 November 24, 2012 Does America Need Labor Unions Today? President John F. Kennedy once said, â€Å"The American Labor Movement has consistently demonstrated its devotion to the public interest. It is, and has been, good for all Americans.† Organized labor has a goal of helping workers get what they deserve in all aspects of their jobs such as salary, benefits, hours, working conditions, and so on

For the love of the game free essay sample

Every year we hear about how some new professional athlete just signed a contract worth a record amount of money . Then the same next year we hear about how another athlete is signing a new contract worth even more than before. In fact, most professional sports minimum salaries are over $100,000 per year. And furthermore, the entire â€Å"game† has become corporate, and seems to no longer hold any value in society. Professional athletes are making too much money in a society that’s salaries and wages are traditionally based on the value of ones work. Whose fault is it that these athletes make these huge salaries? According to most people you ask, it is societies fault. It is the fans’ fault. And that is right. We are the ones who go to these sporting events and pay $50 for a ticket, and $100 for a jacket, and $20 for a hat. We are the ones who support these professional sporting teams, and in turn the players. The reason these ticket prices go up constantly are partly because they need to make more money to pay for our favorite stars, but mostly because they know, no matter how much, the fans will pay it. If everyone was to stop supporting their favorite team by not going to the games, or by not buying the jackets, or by not watching them on television, do you think the salaries would start to decrease? Yes they would. Nobody is going to get paid $100 million dollars if the money is not there for him to be paid with. According to Marshall Burrow, Michael Jordan made 33 million dollars a year, and another 40 million a year in endorsements. (Do Sports Players get Paid too Much so Ticket Prices Go Up). This is equivalent to about $170,000 a day. Is anyone worth $170,000 a day? In my opinion, Jordans salary is not at all reflective of his value in society. To put this in perspective: the president of the United States makes $250,000 a year, whereas this basketball player brings almost that much home each day. On the other hand, professional athletics is a business. And like any businessman, these athletes want the highest salary that they can get. However, this is not what professional athletics was originally intended to be. Athletes used to play these games for the joy of it, but this does not seem to be the case today. Everyday it becomes more and more like a business and less and less like a game, which is simply what it is. Since Jordan is maybe the most famous and the highest paid professional athlete of all time I will use him for a few more examples. According to Forbes magazine, in 1996 Michael Jordan made 31. million dollars solely in salary. (Its a Whole New Ball Game). Jordan also made another 47 million in endorsements that year for a grand total of 78. 3 million dollars in 1 year. Doesn‘t seem too bad for playing some basketball, making a commercial or two, and allowing a few companies to put his face near their product. In fact, according to authors of â€Å"Forbes† magazine, Richard OBrien and Hank Hersch, in that same 1996 season, Michael Jordan played 3,106 minutes of basketball and that equaled out to $160. 97 per second. These figures seem out of control, but they are true. Even more amazing were Mike Tysons earnings. Tyson made 281,000 dollars a second in a single match against Peter McNeeley. In a society where a salary is traditionally determined by the value of a persons work, these figures do not seem reasonable or fair. An argument made on the other side has to do with the number of athletes receiving this much money. Zachary M. Jones, an attorney at Howard University in Washington D. C. , states, Superstar athletes are few in number, so the demand is high, which raises the price for their services significantly (Saporito 61). He says that since it is so hard to find an athlete like this, they need to offer a lot of money, because it is so rare to find a truly great athlete. However, it seems as though there are more and more athletes making these obscene amounts of money. Believe it or not signing a deal for millions of dollars can have a major downside as author, Gary Thorton points out (More Money can Mean More Problems). The minute someone signs that huge contract you go from being a young player with a lot of potential, to a high paid athlete who had better perform like one. When these athletes have a bad day, they are always let known about it. This happens because these professional athletes salaries are so public. Athletes always complain that their salaries are so public, and point out that nobody else’s salaries are in the paper, and that theirs shouldnt be either. But I strongly disagree. For the sole reason that, in a sense, we are the ones paying for it anyway. Sometimes the franchise needs more money to acquire new players, but what if they don’t have it? All they need to do is ask an existing player to restructure his contract to make some money available to pay for the newly obtained player. But the current player has the option to refuse to have his contract restructured, and he probably would refuse to, even if it was in the best interest of the team. Why would he refuse to do that? Simply because he feels he is entitled to the money, that he deserves the money. A lot of professional athletes are greedy. â€Å"Kevin Green, a defensive linebacker said ‘It is true that we are getting paid outrageous amount for what we do out on the turf, but we are the most likely to get hurt in all professional sports. We want to make sure we get what we need before we get out of the league. † (O’Hara, 12). Yes, he brings up a strong point that the job is dangerous, but so are other jobs for example, a firefighter or a police officer. But these occupations are paid nowhere near that much money. In staying with the greed aspect of sports, Wayne Barrett points out a couple of good points (Its a Whole New Ball Game). For example, it was bad enough when all the college bowl games began to be named after corporations that paid them millions of dollars to have their logos attached to these rather popular events. But things become a real issue when a club owner takes a multi-million-dollar payoff to rename a venue that he, himself, does not even own. The taxpayers built those arenas and stadiums, not him. If the name for some reason is leased or sold to some corporation, all the money should go back into the public treasury, not personally to the franchise owner. Greed is not only seen in professional sports anymore, it is seen in college sports more and more everyday. For example, the college bowl game, the Rose Bowl, is now renamed ATT Rose Bowl. Stadiums are always changing their names as well. For instance, Syracuse University football stadium is now called the Carrier dome. Carrier, an air-conditioning company did not pay for the stadium, they pay the owner, or the college in this case, to put their name on the building. It is not as bad when a school does this because the school gets the money. But when a professional team does this, the owner solely gets the money. This shows how money and greed are now such a huge part of sports. Peter Euler pointed out that, â€Å"we should all take a look at the 1997 Pittsburgh Pirates. They were a bunch of average players whose total salary was less than Albert Belles personal salary; yet, they were in the hunt for a playoff spot midway through the final week of the season, while Belles White Sox were not. † (Athletes Salaries Becoming Outrageous). This alone shows that nobody needs to spend these outrageous amounts of money on a team to achieve success; and even if teams do spend a lot, they are not guaranteed anything. Euler went on to say that greed destroys sports, and hes right. Another thing that Euler said was that Players and owners need to realize that contracts cant get much bigger than they are currently. This however, is not true. Because every year the amount of money that the athletes sign for is higher and higher. Even if there were more restrictions put on athletes salaries the owners and players would just find more loop holes and different ways of paying the players, such as personal planes or other luxuries. When put in proportion with what other occupations earn on average, these athletes are paid ridiculous amounts of money to simply play a game. A teacher earns around $40,000 per year. This is a person who has gone to college, and is an important asset in a community. A police officer earns around $50,000 per year. This person risks their life everyday in order to make a place safe for you to live. These are only two examples of people who deserve more money for the work that they do. Professional athletes earn more than 20 times that. In the end, these athletes seem to be extremely over-paid. Money, in general, has seemed to become to important within professional athletics. What happened to the days when athletes used to play for fun and even have another job on the side to make money? They are not playing for the love of the game anymore, they are playing to fulfill their greedy minds. Some people think its fair that they make more money in yeah than most people will ever see in a lifetime. However, I would rather live without professional sports, than without teachers, or doctors. Maybe the industry needs to re-evaluate their priorities. What’s more important to you, your health or a game?

A Case Study Of Whitlam Memorial Hospital (Wmh) †Free Samples

Question: Discuss about the Case Study Of Whitlam Memorial Hospital (Wmh). Answer: Introduction Organizational structure is crucial to the success of health organizations especially since they are located in a complex business environment where patients are knowledgeable on their current situations however, it plays a big role in enabling mission and vision statements outlined by an organization which is the core for their goals and objectives (Harper, 2015). It guides the employees, leaders, and stakeholders in the decision-making process that will mirror the purpose and success of the organization. Moreover, an organizations structure will align the employees, leaders, and stakeholders in an organization with their key duties that will lead to their aims and objectives (Zingg, et, al, 2015). As describes in the case study, Whitlam Memorial Hospital (WMH) started out as a 130-bed community center a decade ago, its business environment has constantly been changing over the years, especially increase in population. The hospital has to restructure its organization structure to ca ter for the needs of the community, there will be an increase in bed capacity to 250 and with an increase in the capacity for community-based clinics in the specialties such as cancer, pediatric, cardiovascular, renal services, trauma services, aged care and community services. Organization structures are crucial to the success of healthcare organization but choosing the right structure that will suit the organizations mission and vision is essential. Therefore, this paper will look at the current organizational structure currently in use by the medical center while analyzing its strengths and limitations while identifying a suitable structure that will link up with the mission and vision of Whitlam Memorial Hospital (WMH). Organisational Structure (Wmh) An organizational structure could be described as the system used to define an organizations hierarchy. it defines how an organization operates and putting it on the track to achieve its goals and objectives. An organizations mission and visions are strategically important to its success in the business environment, it creates a foundation where members of an organization are required to underline their activities to mirror their goals and objectives and must linkup up with the organizational structure. A vision statement of an organization is the future intention of an organization. It generally motivates employees by making them feel part of the organization. Missions statements of an organization simply define the purpose or justification for the existence of the organizations, it acts as a foundation for the decision-making process. Mission and vision statements will tend to influence the structure of the organization by laying a foundation for the organization to follow to the l etter Traditional functional (bureaucratic) organizational structure The daily activities and communication channels of organizations are influenced or affected by the structure of an organization, therefore there is need to consider the type of structure used carefully. Whitlam Memorial Hospital (WMH), currently uses the traditional functional (bureaucratic) organizational structure which will not be efficient with the constant complexity of its business environment. A traditional bureaucratic organizational structure is usually characterized by thin and tall organizational charts which are centrally based. This simply means that the decision-making process is burdened on themanagement level, however, it encourages a cultured focused organization where rules and practices are set and allowing close supervision of controlled methodologies. Skills sets are grouped into functional departments such as accounting, administration and ICT support and so on. However, the traditional bureaucratic organizational structure has its limitations and benefits. Mana ger at the top of the pyramid is able to exercise huge control over the organization's strategic decision and its implementation process (Marquis Huston, 2015). Therefore, time used in making crucial decisions is short and it proves to be of quality uses as it relies on the skill set of the top-level managers. Its departmentalization allows the gathering of a specific skill set that allows efficiency in activities pertaining to the specific department. This structure has also its limits, it discourages creativity and innovation in the organization through the limiting the decision-making process to thetop management level allowing a form of dictatorialmanagement style .an employee in such an organization will have a hard time airing any idea or grievances that may arise. This results in employees not having a conducive work environment leading to reduced productivity of an organization Matrix organizational structure Whitlam Memorial Hospital (WMH), currently uses the traditional functional (bureaucratic) organizational structure which will not be efficient with the constant complexity of its business environment. Its current expansion to 250 beds and the introduction of new products and services targeting different audience will be overwhelming and may lead to reduced quality services offered destroying its reputation. How can this be avoided? well, this is through changing of its organizational structure to matrix organizational structure (Sullivan,2013). This organizational structure is mainly characterized by dividing authority by functional area and project-based area. Therefore, employees at Whitlam Memorial Hospital (WMH) will have to answer to two immediate authoritative figures, this will be essential for the hospitals especially in its expansion to different medical fields that will need immediate supervisions and scrutiny. A functional supervisor will be in charge of the hospital funct ions divisions such as marketing their medical products and services and ICT support. The project-based supervisor will be in charge of the projects or activities such as diagnosing and treatment of patients Benefits of matrix organizational structure Efficient Information Exchange: there close working relationship between various departments in the organization that allows the flow of ideas and information. solving of issues that are affecting the organizations tends to be even easier, faster and efficient in the long-run. This is due to the presence of effective lines of communication that allow quick and efficient decision making. there is also the collaboration of departmental strategies within the organizations that allows managers or authority figures to respond instantly. This is suitable for Whitlam Memorial Hospital (WMH) since accessing a patients data who has undergone treatment through various phases in different departments, is crucial to the successful treatment of the patient. It Increases Motivation: A democratic leadership style is encouraged in this organizational structure through giving the subordinates of the organization a chance to share their ideas for the final decision is made by the managers (Haux, Winter, Ammenwerth Brigl, 2013). This allows a conducive working environment for all employees with leads to increase in quality of products and services offered while aligning with the core objectives, mission, and vision statements. Employees in the Whitlam Memorial Hospital (WMH) will be motivated to work efficiently in their respective department knowing that their views and ideas in the medical world are always considered by themanagement level for the benefit of their patients (Dubois et, al 2015). The breadth of Skill-it is often hard for an employee in an organizational structure such as functional to benefits from skills and expertise of other areas. However, when it comes to the matrix, this is possible. Through the interaction of employees from different departments, they can broaden their skills easily that would assist them in solving particular tasks employees in WMH will be in a position to broaden their skills set in other file that will prove crucial in administering their products and services to their consumers (Nordmeyer, 2015, March 08). Flexibility-matrix organizational structure allows the maximum use of the organizations resources efficiently without any wastage or misuse as the case for functional structure, resources are shared widely through departmentalization of the organization which enables cost saving in the organization. this will assist Whitlam Memorial Hospital (WMH) in cost saving and direct funds where its actually needed ( Akrani, 2014, February 23). Limitations of matrix organizational structures It Has Internal Complexity: matrix organization structure is complex which increases with the size and increase in diversification of products and services. Some employees may be confused with mixed loyalty since there a dual authority that if not properly used could cause a rift in the organization slowing its productivity in the long run (McNaught, Shaw, (2017). Cost: theres an increase in expenses that may arise from cross-functional teams where employees from different departments posses an additional set of skills. This will generally increase the wages of such employees since the individual will function both in the matrix organizational and the functional area of expertise. The increase of authoritative figures for each function and areas of expertise will also result in an increase in expenses (Ashkenas, Ulrich, Jick, Kerr, 2015). Conflict: there may rise conflicts in the organizations due to two authoritative figures which will lead to mixed reactions if there is a power struggle. this may lead to a cross-functional employee receiving orders from one end that are contradicted by the other end. This may lead to an unconducive work environment that will lead to employee turnover. there is a higher possibility shifting responsibility through of blame games between the two authoritative figures that may arise when there is a failure in certain activities (Nordmeyer, 2015, March 08) Conclusion In conclusion, this essay has identified the current organization structure that is currently being used by the Whitlam Memorial Hospital (WMH). The organizational structure is the traditional functional (bureaucratic) organizational structure which will not be efficient with the constant complexity of its business environment. Its benefits and limitations have been described in the essay. Matrix organizational structure has been suggested in the essay that will handle the complexity of the business environment of the new renovated Whitlam Memorial Hospital (WMH). The shortcoming and benefits of the organization have been highlighted while illustrating the suitability to the organization (Ginter, 2018). Reference Akrani, G. (2014, February 23). Matrix Organisation - Meaning Features Advantages Limitations. Retrieved April 07, 2018, from Ashkenas, R., Ulrich, D., Jick, T., Kerr, S. (2015). The boundaryless organization: Breaking the chains of organizational structure. John Wiley Sons. Dubois, C. A., D'amour, D., Tchouaket, E., Clarke, S., Rivard, M., Blais, R. (2013). Associations of patient safety outcomes with models of nursing care organization at unit level in hospitals.International Journal for Quality in Health Care,25(2), 110-117. Ginter, P. M. (2018). The strategic management of health care organizations. John Wiley Sons. Harper, C. (2015).Organizations: Structures, processes and outcomes. Routledge. Haux, R., Winter, A., Ammenwerth, E., Brigl, B. (2013). Strategic information management in hospitals: an introduction to hospital information systems. Springer Science Business Media. https://kalyan-city.blogspot.co.ke/2011/05/matrix-organisation-meaning-features.html Marquis, B.L. Huston, C.J. (2015). Organizational structure. In Leadership roles and management functions in nursing: Theory and application (8th ed.pp.260-283) McNaught, K., Shaw, G. (2017). Orientation to mission: Assessing the perceptions of effectiveness of an in-house orientation program focussed on mission, vision and values within a large-scale, not-for-profit, private hospital. Nordmeyer, B. (2015, March 08). Advantages Disadvantages of Matrix Organizational Structures in Business Organizations https://smallbusiness.chron.com/advantages-disadvantages-matrix-organizational-structures-business-organizations-26350.html Nordmeyer, B. (2015, March 08). Disadvantages of Organizations with the Matrix Approach. https://smallbusiness.chron.com/disadvantages-organizations-matrix-approach-22115.html Sullivan, E.J. (2013). Effective leadership and management in nursing (8th ed.) Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Chapter 2 Zingg, W., Holmes, A., Dettenkofer, M., Goetting, T., Secci, F., Clack, L., ... Pittet, D. (2015). Hospital organization, management, and structure for prevention of health-care-associated infection: a systematic review and expert consensus.The Lancet Infectious Diseases,15(2), 212-224.

Technology and People free essay sample

Technology is not something that one can ignore, as it is being developed all the time around us, and is included everyday of our lives. Technology shapes the world and has both positive and negative effects. Technology has made huge advancements in society. People can save more time, receive better education, faster communication, advance health services, as well as many other benefits. However, modern technology might cause problems too. In â€Å"The Back draft of Technology† Stephanie Alaimo and Mark Koester discuss many disadvantages of modern technology in society. They state that because of the increasing use modern technology, a growing number of people are observing more problems now more than ever. Problems such as unemployment, losing human interaction, bad economy, and so much more than one can imagine are bad effects of advance technology. The tone of the essay is not optimistic on mechanization in every area of life. Alaimo and Koester give warning to their readers about negative causes and effects of mechanization at present time and also in the future. We will write a custom essay sample on Technology and People or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Alaimo and Koester are correct. Although technology helps human beings to adapt an easier way of life, in the long term it might not be as helpful as people realize, and it could bring too many problems such as unfair competition, unemployment, and complex life for society. Technology can eliminate competition or make competition unfair. For example, when A Company produces something and B Company in another country produces the same item as well, they must struggle for their market. Imagine the B Company purchases more equipment that will cut the number of workers needed and improve production, and then they can reduce the price of their product. If A Company doesnt follow their way, then they could be forced out of business. In this case the A Company is forced to buying the machines, so they can stay in business. In fact, bigger companies are going to take advantages of technology in order to take over the market from the smaller ones. However, if smaller company is not able to make these changes then they are out of business, and since then the survivor company will be able to change back their prices and qualities of products without being worried about the market. There are so many advantages from highly developed technology; also there are great deals of disadvantages from them. Some people think that technology has made life easier and more convenient while others think that technology has made life more complex and stressful. For example, many customers have had great experiences with self checkout machines. Most customers like the experience. They feel that it is quicker. Most of the time this is true, and the lines tend to be shorter and they save more time. People think it is faster because of a psychological effect. This is because they are doing the work themselves, so they feel they are going faster. However, it is poor customer service that they have to do all the work themselves. In other word, they are taking over people job without getting or paying less on their items. In addition, computers, robots and machines also can easily break and most of the time people don’t know how to fix them. Alaimo and Koester point that the most harmful effect of modern technology is to have society with growing numbers of unemployment. As technology is developing, robots and machines are taking over many jobs and people are losing their jobs. For instance, mechanization in automobile assembly caused bad economy around the world. In the beginning, everything on the line was done by humans in order to build a car. The assembly line was a great technological improvement, but today robots are taking over human hand work. As people lose their jobs, they will have hard time getting money which would make it hard for them to continue to meet their living expenses. Moreover, as people use less money the economy gets worse. Especially, if it is a country as large as the United States, the problem will influence the world greatly. Therefore, the whole nationwide production will go down, and so does the living standard. After the inevitable problems, it is considerably believed that unemployment cannot be avoided after the technological expansion. This also has a negative effect on the employees who will be replaced by the new machines. This great problem is getting worse when big companies are getting involved with bad economy. As a result, we are going to see more and more unemployment in society as we go farther. In conclusion, Alaimo and Koester are right. Technology has made life easier and quicker, but dangerous. Technology has definitely changed the lifestyle and common purpose of many people. People are getting lazy. Almost everything must be done for them in advance. Hopefully people will not get used to watching a robot do all the work for them. Society needs to stand up and do something in order to have unstressed life along with modern technology.

Nathans Run essays

Nathans Run essays Nathans run, published in 1996 used themes and issues, which are present in past and contemporary affairs of society. Juvenile detention, killer teenagers justifying their actions, police corruption, these are all issues found in news and current affairs. Using familiar issues, ideas and themes John Gilstrap creates an attraction between the reader and the story line, producing an interpretation, which could be transferred to a screenplay. A part of the book, which can be, classed as the climax of the story holds the reader in a way a film would use action, conflict and resolution. It could make a very powerful scene in a film. Scenes are the change of action or setting in a film, the change of emotional and physical actions presented by the actor while in character. The scene would begin in a suburban, built up area, with a young boy pointing a pistol at an un-uniformed police officer. The boy, called Nathan Bailey is wearing an oversized shirt with the letters JDC across his back. His hair is filthy with blood streaked through it, opposite him with his weapon holstered an uniformed police officer with a gold badge hooked over his jacket pocket approaches him cautiously. Warren Michaels, the policeman, attempts to negotiate with Nathan. Presenting this scene on film as a director I would use similar issues, ideas and affairs to expose to the audience as Gilstrap presents to his readers. Using characterised body and facial movements and methods of acting I would like to show the audience that body language could be more descriptive and hold more information than dialogue in the form of character communication. Using this scene, as an example there is a lot of pauses between dialogue and the only form of communication between the characters are through facial expressions and how they present their actions to the audience. The meaning of this scene, in relation to body language, will show how truth can not only be heard ...

Osmoregulation Definition and Explanation

Osmoregulation Definition and Explanation Osmoregulation is the active regulation of osmotic pressure to maintain the balance of water and electrolytes in an organism. Control of osmotic pressure is  needed to perform biochemical reactions and preserve homeostasis. How Osmoregulation Works Osmosis is the movement of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane into an area that has a higher solute concentration. Osmotic pressure is the external pressure needed to prevent the solvent from crossing the membrane. Osmotic pressure depends on the concentration of solute particles. In an organism, the solvent is water and the solute particles are mainly dissolved salts and other ions, since larger molecules (proteins and polysaccharides) and nonpolar or hydrophobic molecules (dissolved gases, lipids) dont cross a semipermeable membrane. To maintain the water and electrolyte balance, organisms excrete excess water, solute molecules, and wastes. Osmoconformers and Osmoregulators There are two strategies used for osmoregulation- conforming and regulating. Osmoconformers use active or passive processes to match their internal osmolarity to that of the environment. This is commonly seen in marine invertebrates, which have the same internal osmotic pressure inside their cells as the outside water, even though the chemical composition of the solutes may be different. Osmoregulators control internal osmotic pressure so that conditions are maintained within a tightly-regulated range. Many animals are osmoregulators, including vertebrates (like humans). Osmoregulation Strategies of Different Organisms Bacteria - When osmolarity increases around bacteria, they may use transport mechanisms to absorb electrolytes or small organic molecules. The osmotic stress activates genes in certain bacteria that lead to the synthesis of osmoprotectant molecules. Protozoa - Protists use contractile vacuoles to transport ammonia and other excretory wastes from the cytoplasm to the cell membrane, where the vacuole opens to the environment. Osmotic pressure forces water into the cytoplasm, while diffusion and active transport control the flow of water and electrolytes. Plants - Higher plants use the stomata on the underside of leaves to control water loss. Plant cells rely on vacuoles to regulate  cytoplasm osmolarity. Plants that live in hydrated soil (mesophytes) easily compensate for water lost from transpiration by absorbing more water. The leaves and stem of the plants may be protected from excessive water loss by a waxy outer coating called the cuticle. Plants that live in dry habitats (xerophytes) store water in vacuoles, have thick cuticles, and may have structural modifications (i.e., needle-shaped leaves, protected stomata) to protect against water loss. Plants that live in salty environments (halophytes) have to regulate not only water intake/loss but also the effect on osmotic pressure by salt. Some species store salts in their roots so the low water potential will draw the solvent in via osmosis. Salt may be excreted onto leaves to trap water molecules for absorption by leaf cells. Plants that live in water or damp environments (hydr ophytes) can absorb water across their entire surface. Animals - Animals utilize an excretory system to control the amount of water that is lost to the environment and maintain osmotic pressure. Protein metabolism also generates waste molecules which could disrupt osmotic pressure. The organs that are responsible for osmoregulation depend on the species. Osmoregulation in Humans In humans, the primary organ that regulates water is the kidney. Water, glucose, and amino acids may be reabsorbed from the glomerular filtrate in the kidneys or it may continue through the ureters to the bladder for excretion in urine. In this way, the kidneys maintain the electrolyte balance of the blood and also regulate blood pressure. Absorption is controlled by the hormones aldosterone, antidiuretic hormone (ADH), and angiotensin II. Humans also lose water and electrolytes via perspiration. Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus of the brain monitor changes in water potential, controlling thirst and secreting ADH. ADH is stored in the pituitary gland. When it is released, it targets the endothelial cells in the nephrons of the kidneys. These cells are unique because they have aquaporins. Water can pass through aquaporins directly rather than having to navigate through the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane. ADH opens the water channels of the aquaporins, allowing water to flow. The kidneys continue to absorb water, returning it to the bloodstream, until the pituitary gland stops releasing ADH.

International Community Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 9000 words

International Community - Essay Example From the appalling crackdown on the visionary expectation of the ardent student protesters some16 years ago to the subsequent repression of all political dissidence, Communist leaders have time and again tended to reassert a blind obeisance to a dogged system of harsh and mechanical one-party rule. Equally alarming is the ostentatious display of military power in response to Taiwanese aspirations for independence over the last two decades, along with the troubling detection of furtive deliveries of military know-how to unstable areas in the Middle East, the Persian Gulf, and South Asia. These measures scarcely serve to improve international confidence in the Chinese bid for a responsible position on the world stage of the new century. Admittedly China has recently begun to evince a new, less menacing and forward-looking stance toward proving itself as a responsible collaborator in global interaction as the nation begins to assume a substantial position in the world economy. By assisting in negotiations on the Korean Peninsula, China, in effect, was able to take advantage of her influence in the region in the service of broader international concerns. Domestically, the People's Republic of China has taken steps to free a token number of leading political dissidents in response to Western appeals, and, in diverse rural villages, elections for local leaders have been authorized. Chinese rulers also seem to be dealing moderately with the lately re-annexed regions of Hong Kong and Macau, and so far seem to be restricting intimidation tactics to verbal posturing and a display of military muscle in response to Taiwanese desires for independence.1 It is possible that the menace that some perceive in China as an up-and-co ming superpower with overall goals that threaten American wellbeing and commerce, might, in truth, be an emerging new Chinese generation: a forthright forward-looking dynamic keenly aware that the future depends on a critical modification of policies from the worn-out revolutionary era in the interest of asserting China's rightful place in the broader scheme of a world growing ever more and more interdependent. At least one Chinese insider seems to believe so. From his years spent in the People's Republic as a Red Guard during the infamous Cultural Revolution, Professor Chen Jian brings a quite singular experience and personal familiarity to his study. He is able to appraise the foreign-policy proclivities of the People's Republic from the perspective of an insider seeped in Chinese history. Jian's assessment reflects on much more constrained Chinese objectives than those that bother many outside critics. As a country bent in earnest on certifying for itself a leading role in the global community, Chinese decision makers are certainly cognizant of the imperative to appreciably accommodate current national policies in apparent deference to international standards.2 According to Professor Jian, even though China may boast currently of a ten percent annual economic growth, widespread poverty still haunts its rural interior. The regime can employ its extensive masses in the service of its growing

Shamma Al Rathy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Shamma Al Rathy - Essay Example ill be charged for the architects' services instead of at cost, significantly increase the company's assets and, correspondingly, the shareholders equity; Such "unbilled" receivables may mislead if they include also uncompleted stages of the projects. It would be recommended to reflect the projects at cost. At the end of reporting period ongoing projects should be evaluated, percentage of their completion estimated, and corresponding revenue recognized. 6. Premium Coupons: From consumers' point of view these coupons add value and promote purchase of coffee, so cost of redeemed coupons should apply to the sales revenue of coffee; Given that the company can reasonably estimate from previous experience percentage of the coupons that will be redeemed in the future and that the sale of promotion coffee has already been maid, allowance for the 10% of outstanding coupons should be applied to the 2004 sales revenues for coffee. 7. Travelers Checks: Bank records 1.5% fee as its revenue; American Express records increase in the checks outstanding and unearned revenue. 8. Product Repurchase Agreement: Neither of the manufacturers has revenue in 2004: Manufacturer A should not recognize AED 600,000 as revenue because of possible repurchase of the product in the future, Wholesaler B does not have revenue because compensation for its services will be paid only in July of the following year. 9. Franchises: The initial services (training, introduction to the referral system, and marketing aids) are provided during the year when the agreement is signed. 75% of the receipts come from the annual fees. The company should recognize the initial franchise fee as revenue in the same year the agreement is signed, or allocate it between two or three first years. If the market becomes saturated,...Trees left to grow for one more year are equivalent to work-in-process inventory for manufacturing companies. On-going projects reflected at the rates at which the customers will be charged for the architects' services instead of at cost, significantly increase the company's assets and, correspondingly, the shareholders equity; It would be recommended to reflect the projects at cost. At the end of reporting period ongoing projects should be evaluated, percentage of their completion estimated, and corresponding revenue recognized. Given that the company can reasonably estimate from previous experience percentage of the coupons that will be redeemed in the future and that the sale of promotion coffee has already been maid, allowance for the 10% of outstanding coupons should be applied to the 2004 sales revenues for coffee. The company should recognize the initial franchise fee as revenue in the same year the agreement is signed, or allocate it between two or three first years. If the market becomes saturated, the company's profits are likely to drop 25% in comparison with the previous year and then be kept at the same level.

Anorexia Nervosa :: Eating Disorders

Eating disorders are devastating behavioral maladies brought on by a complex interplay of factors, which may include emotional and personality disorder, family pressure, a possible genetic or biological susceptibility and a culture in which there is an over abundance of food and an obsession with thinness. Eating disorders are generally characterized as bulimia nervosa, anorexia nervosa and eating disorders not other wise specified. According to the World of Psychology anorexia is defined as " an eating disorder characterized by an overwhelming, irrational fear of being fat, compulsive dieting to the point of self starvation and excessive weight loss."(World of Psychology Page 317). There are some causes, symptoms, complications and treatment of anorexia nervosa. There is no single cause for the eating disorder anorexia but a number of factors including emotional disorders and cultural influences. Researchers have shown that emotional disorders such as depression collaborate in causing anorexia nervosa. This is because most anorexic patients have been found to have abnormal levels of certain neurotransmitters particularly serotonin, that are associated with depression and obsessive compulsive disorder. According to a research conducted by Dr. John .E. Godine of Harvard Medical School " studies are finding that low blood levels of amino acid tryptophan, a component in food that is essential to the production of serotonin, can produce depression and may also contribute to anorexia nervosa" (Psychology Today Page 17, May 97). Researches have also shown that changes in seasons affects both depression and eating disorders and also that onset of anorexia appears to peak in May, which is also a peak month for suicide. Anxiety disorders are also very common with anorexia. Phobias and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) usually precede the onset of the eating disorder, while panic disorder tends to follow. Studies have shown that people with anorexia are especially prone to obsessive-compulsive disorder. Cultural influences can also cause anorexia as can be seen in most western cultures. The social pressures of western cultures certainly play a major role in triggering eating disorders such as anorexia. On the other hand, advertisers heavily market weight reductions programs and present anorexic young models as the paradigm of sexual desirability and on the other hand again, the media floods the public with ads for junk food. According to the World of Psychology "over the past quarter century, the 'ideal' female figure as portrayed in the media and by fashion and entertainment industries, has become even thinner, often to the point of emancipation"(World of Psychology Page 317).

Kssr Sains

TAJUK 1| Isu-isu dalam Pendidikan Sains| SINOPSIS Topik ini membincangkan beberapa isu-isu dalam pendidikan sains. Isu-isu ini berkaitan dengan matlamat pendidikan sains, kandungan pendidikan sains, pengajaran sains dan literasi saintifik. HASIL PEMBELAJARAN 1. Mengenal pasti dan membincangkan isu-isu dalam pendidikan sains. 2. Analisis kesan-kesan isu-isu yang berkaitan dengan pendidikan sains dalam pengajaran sains di sekolah-sekolah rendah. Kerangka Tajuk-tajuk Rajah 1. 0 Kerangka tajuk ISI KANDUNGAN 1. Isu- isu Kurikulum Sains Preparing a national science curriculum that will help school students develop their scientific competencies alongside their acquisition of science knowledge requires attention to four issues. 1. Selection of science content (knowledge, skill, understanding and values) There is a consistent criticism that many of the problems and issues in science education arise from the structure of science curricula which tend to be knowledge-heavy and alienating to a si gnificant number of students.A curriculum that covers an extensive range of science ideas hampers the efforts of even the best teachers who attempt to provide engaging science learning for their students. The effect of such knowledge-laden curricula is for teachers to treat science concepts in a superficial way as they attempt to cover what is expected in the curriculum. Rather than developing understanding, students therefore have a tendency to rely on memorisation when taking tests of their science learning. The challenge is to identify the science concepts that are important and can be realistically understood by students in the learning time available.One of the realities faced in science education is that scientific knowledge is rapidly increasing. While this is valuable for our society, it adds to the pressure on the science curriculum. There is a reluctance to replace the old with the new. Rather, there is a tendency to simply add the new science ideas to the traditional ones . Accompanying this desire to retain the traditional knowledge base is a feeling that understanding this content exemplifies intellectual rigor. Obviously such a situation is not sustainable.The consequence is that many students are losing interest in science. The question then needs to be asked: what is important in a science curriculum? This paper argues that developing science competencies is important, understanding the big ideas of science is important, exposure to a range of science experiences relevant to everyday life is important and understanding of the major concepts from the different sciences is important. It is also acknowledged that there is a core body of knowledge and understanding that is fundamental to the understanding of major ideas.The paper also proposes that it is possible to provide flexibility and choice about the content of local science curriculum. The factors that influence this choice include context, local science learning opportunities, historical per spectives, contemporary and local issues and available learning resources. In managing this choice, there is a need to be conscious of the potential danger of repetition of knowledge through a student’s school life and ensure repetition is minimised and that a balanced science curriculum is provided for every student.Finally, when selecting content for a national science curriculum it is important to determine how much time can reasonably and realistically be allocated to science and within this time constraint what is a reasonable range of science concepts and skills for learning in primary and secondary school. 2. Relevance of science learning a curriculum is more likely to provide a basis for the development of scientific competencies if it is relevant to individual students, perceived to have personal value, or is presented in a context to which students can readily relate.Instead of simply emphasising what has been described as ‘canonical science concepts’, there is a need to provide a meaningful context to which students can relate (Aikenhead 2006). Furthermore, students will be better placed to understand the concepts if they can be applied to everyday experiences. To provide both context and opportunities for application takes time. To increase the relevance of science to students there is a strong case to include more contemporary (and possibly controversial) issues in the science curriculum.In doing so, it is important to note that the complexity of some scientific issues means that they do not have clear-cut solutions. Often, the relevant science knowledge is limited or incomplete so that the questions can only be addressed in terms of what may be possible or probable rather than the certainty of what will happen. Even when the risks inherent in making a particular decision are assessable by science, the cultural or social aspects also need to be taken into consideration.The school science curriculum should provide opportunities to explore these complex issues to enable students to understand that the application of science and technology to the real world is often concerned with risk and debate (Rennie 2006). Science knowledge can be applied to solve problems concerning human needs and wants. Every application of science has an impact on our environment. For this reason, one needs to appreciate that decisions concerning science applications involve constraints, consequences and risks. Such decision-making is not value-free.In developing science competencies, students need to appreciate the influence of particular values in attempting to balance the issues of constraints, consequences and risk. While many students perceive school science as difficult, the inclusion of complex issues should not be avoided on the basis that there is a potential for making science seem even more difficult. The answer is not to exclude contemporary issues, but rather to use them to promote a more sophisticated understanding of the nature of science and scientific knowledge.It is important to highlight the implications of a science curriculum that has personal value and relevance to students. This means that the curriculum cannot be a ‘one size fits all’, but rather a curriculum that is differentiated so that students can engage with content that is meaningful and satisfying and provides the opportunity for conceptual depth. In this respect the science curriculum should be built upon knowledge of how students learn, have demonstrated relevance to tudents’ everyday world, and be implemented using teaching and learning approaches that involve students in inquiry and activity. Within the flexibility of a science curriculum that caters for a broad cohort of students and a range of delivery contexts, there is a need to define what it is that students should know in each stage of schooling. In this way, students can build their science inquiry skills based on an understanding of the major ide as that underpin our scientific endeavour. 3.General capabilities and science education There is an argument, based on research within science education, that curriculum needs to achieve a better balance between the traditional knowledge-focused science and a more humanistic science curriculum that prepares students for richer understanding and use of science in their everyday world (Fensham, 2006). Beyond the science discipline area there is also pressure in some Australian jurisdictions to develop a broader general school curriculum that embraces the view of having knowledge and skills important for future personal, social and economic life.While there is much value in such futuristic frameworks, there is the danger that the value of scientific understanding may be diminished. Unless the details of the general capabilities refer specifically to science content, the importance of science may be overlooked and the curriculum time devoted to it decrease. The science curriculum can re adily provide opportunities to develop these general capabilities. Such general capabilities as thinking strategies, decision-making approaches, communication, use of information and communication technology (ICT), team work and problem solving are all important dimensions of science learning.There is an increasing number of teachers who will require assistance to structure their teaching in ways that enable students to meld the general life capabilities with the understanding and skills needed to achieve scientific competencies. Such assistance will be found in the provision of quality, adaptable curriculum resources and sustained effective professional learning. 4. Assessment When a curriculum document is prepared there is an expectation that what is written will be what is taught and what is assessed. Unfortunately, there is sometimes a considerable gap between ntended curriculum, the taught curriculum and the assessed curriculum; what can be assessed often determines what is tau ght. This disconnect is a result of the different pressures and expectations in education system. An obvious goal in curriculum development is that the intended, taught and assessed dimensions of curriculum are in harmony. The importance of assessment in curriculum development is highlighted in the process referred to as ‘backward design’ in which one works through three stages from curriculum intent to assessment expectations to finally planning learning experiences and instruction (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005).This process reinforces the simple proposition that for a curriculum to be successfully implemented one should have a clear and realistic picture of how the curriculum will be assessed. Assessment should serve the purpose of learning. Classroom assessment, however, is often translated in action as testing. It is unfortunate that the summative end-of-topic tests seem to dominate as the main tool of assessment. Senior secondary science assessment related to university entrance has long reinforced a content-based summative approach to assessment in secondary schools.To improve the quality of science learning there is a need to introduce more diagnostic and formative assessment practices. These assessment tools help teachers to understand what students know and do not know and hence plan relevant learning experiences that will be beneficial. Summative testing does have an important role to play in monitoring achievement standards and for accountability and certification purposes, but formative assessment is more useful in promoting learning.Assessment should enable the provision of detailed diagnostic information to students. It should show what they know, understand and can demonstrate. It should also show what they need to do to improve. It should be noted that the important science learning aspects concerning attitudes and skills as outlined in the paper cannot be readily assessed by pencil and paper tests. For that reason, it is important to e mphasise the need for a variety of assessment approaches. While assessment is important, it should not dominate the learning process.Structure of the curriculum There is value in differentiating the curriculum into various parts that are relevant to the needs of the students and the school structure (Fensham, 1994). 5. In regard to the school structure, the nature of the teacher’s expertise becomes a factor to consider. For early childhood teachers, their expertise lies in the understanding of how children learn. Secondary science teachers have a rich understanding of science while senior secondary teachers have expertise in a particular discipline of science. Each part would have a different curriculum focus.The four parts are: †¢ early childhood †¢ primary †¢ junior secondary †¢ senior secondary. Developing scientific competencies takes time and the science curriculum should reflect the kinds of science activities, experiences and content appropriate for students of different age levels. In sum, early science experiences should relate to self awareness and the natural world. During the primary years, the science curriculum should develop the skills of investigation, using experiences which provide opportunities to practice language literacy and numeracy.In secondary school, some differentiation of the sub-disciplines of science may be appropriate, but as local and community issues are interdisciplinary, an integrated science may be the best approach. Senior secondary science curricula should be differentiated, to provide for students who wish to pursue career-related science specializations, as well those who prefer a more general, integrated science for citizenship. Early Childhood Curriculum focus: awareness of self and the local natural world. Young children have an intrinsic curiosity about their immediate world. They have a desire to explore and investigate the things around them.Purposeful play is an important feature of thei r investigations. Observation is an important skill to be developed at this time, using all the senses in a dynamic way. Observation also leads into the idea of order that involves comparing, sorting and describing. 2. PrimaryCurriculum focus: recognising questions that can be investigated scientifically and investigating them. During the primary years students should have the opportunity to develop ideas about science that relate to their life and living. A broad range of topics is suitable including weather, sound, light, plants, animals, the night sky, materials, soil, water and movement.Within these topics the science ideas of order, change, patterns and systems should be developed. In the early years of primary school, students will tend to use a trial and error approach to their science investigations. As they progress through their primary years, the expectation is that they will begin to work in a more systematic way. The notion of a ‘fair test’ and the idea of variables will be developed, as well as other forms of science inquiry. The importance of measurement will also be fostered. 3. Junior secondaryCurriculum focus: explaining phenomena involving science and its applications.During these years, the students will cover topics associated with each of the sciences: earth and space science, life science and physical science. Within these topics it is expected that aspects associated with science for living, scienceinquiry and contemporary science would be integrated in the fields of science. While integration is the more probable approach, it is possible that topics may be developed directly from each one of these themes. For example, there may be value in providing a science unit on an open science investigation in which students conduct a study on an area of their choosing.While there may be specific topics on contemporary science aspects and issues,teachers and curriculum resources should strive to include the recent science research in a particular area. It is this recent research that motivates and excites students. In determining what topics students should study from the broad range of possibilities, it is important to exercise restraint and to avoid overcrowding the curriculum and providing space for the development of students’ science competencies alongside their knowledge and understanding of science content.Topics could include states of matter, substances and reactions, energy forms, forces and motion, the human body, diversity of life, ecosystems, the changing earth and our place in space. The big science ideas of energy, sustainability, equilibrium and interdependence should lead to the ideas of form and function that result in a deeper appreciation of evidence, models and theories. There are some students ready to begin a more specialised program science in junior secondary and differentiation as early as Year 9 may need to be considered to extend and engage these students’ interest and skills in science. . Senior Secondary. There should be at least three common courses across the country: physics, chemistry and biology. There could also be one broader-based course that provides for students wanting only one science course at the senior secondary level. It could have an emphasis on applications. The integrating themes of science for life, scientific inquiry and contemporary science should be embedded into all these courses where realistically possible. Other specialised courses could also be provided. Existing courses in the states and territories are among the possibilities available.National adoption would improve the resources to support the individual courses. (Sumber: National Curriculum Board (2008). National Science Curriculum: Initial advice. Retrieved 10 Sept. 2009 from www. acara. edu. au/verve/_†¦ /Science_Initial_Advice_Paper. pdf) | Latihan| 1. Baca kandungan diatas. 2. Nyatakan isu-isu dalam pendidikan sains yang ditemui dalam kandungan di atas. 3. Bincang dan tuliskan refleksi sebanyak dua halaman tentang kesan daripada isu-isu pengajaran sains rendah. | | Membuat Nota| Mengumpul maklumat mengenai literasi sains dan hubungannya dengan pendidikan sains dari buku atau internet.Membina peta minda untuk menyatakan maklumat yang anda telah berkumpul. | . . Senarai Semak Jawab ujian di bawah bagi menguji tahap literasi saintifik anda. Test of Scientific Literacy Answer each question with ‘true' if what the sentence most normally means is typically true and ‘false' if it is typically false. 1. | Scientists usually expect an experiment to turn out a certain way. | | 2. | Science only produces tentative conclusions that can change. | | 3. | Science has one uniform way of conducting research called â€Å"the scientific method. | | 4| Scientific theories are explanations and not facts. | | 5. | When being scientific one must have faith only in what is justified by empirical evidence. | | 6. | Science is just about the fa cts, not human interpretations of them. | | 7. | To be scientific one must conduct experiments. | | 8. | Scientific theories only change when new information becomes available. | | 9. | Scientists manipulate their experiments to produce particular results. | | 10. | Science proves facts true in a way that is definitive and final. | | 11. An experiment can prove a theory true. | | 12. | Science is partly based on beliefs, assumptions, and the nonobservable. | | 13. | Imagination and creativity are used in all stages of scientific investigations. | | 14. | Scientific theories are just ideas about how something works. | | 15. | A scientific law is a theory that has been extensively and thoroughly confirmed. | | 16. | Scientists’ education, background, opinions, disciplinary focus, and basic guiding assumptions and philosophies influence their perception and interpretation of the available data. | 17. | A scientific law will not change because it has been proven true. | | 18. | A n accepted scientific theory is an hypothesis that has been confirmed by considerable evidence and has endured all attempts to disprove it. | | 19. | A scientific law describes relationships among observable phenomena but does not explain them. | | 20. | Science relies on deduction (x entails y) more than induction (x implies y). | | 21. | Scientists invent explanations, models or theoretical entities. | | 22. | Scientists construct theories to guide further research. | 23. | Scientists accept the existence of theoretical entities that have never been directly observed. | | 24. | Scientific laws are absolute or certain. | | Jawapan 1. T|   9. T | 17. F |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 0 wrong = A+| 2. T | 10. F | 18. T |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 1 wrong = A| 3. F  | 11. F | 19. T |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 2 wrong = A-| 4. T | 12. T | 20. F |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 3 wrong = B+| 5. T | 13. T | 21. T |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 4 wrong = B| 6. F | 14. F | 22. T |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 5 wrong = B-| 7. F | 15. F | 23. T |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 6 wrong = C | 8. F | 16. T | 24. F |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 7 wrong = D| | | | | 8 or more wrong = F| RujukanFleer, M. , & Hardy. T. (2001). Science for Children: Developing a Personal Approach to Teaching. (2nd Edition). Sydney: Prentice Hall. Pg 146 – 147) National Curriculum Board (2008). National Science Curriculum: Initial advice. Retrieved on10 Sept. 2009 from :www. acara. edu. au/verve/_†¦ /Science_Initial_Advice_Paper. pdf Hazen, R. M. (2002). What is scientific literacy? Retrieved on 10 Sept. 2009 from : http://www. gmu. edu/robinson/hazen. htm | Tamat Topik 1| TAJUK 2| Kurikulum Sains Pendidikan Rendah Malaysia | SINOPSISTopik ini menggariskansejarah perkembangankurikulumsainssekolah rendahdi Malaysia. Kurikulum di Malaysia telah melaluibeberapaperubahandariKajianAlam Semulajadi, Projek Khas, Alam dan ManusiadanSainsKBSRsekarang HASIL PEMBELAJARAN 1. Menyatakan perubahan dalam kurikulum sains sekolah rendah di Malaysia. 2. Menyatakan rasional untuk perubahan dalam kurikulum sains s ekolah rendah di Malaysia. 3. Membandingbezakan kekuatan dan kelemahan setiap kurikulum sains sekolah rendah yang telah diperkenalkan di Malaysia. Kerangka Tajuk Rajah 2 : Kerangka Tajuk-TajukISI KANDUNGAN 2. 0Sains Sekolah Rendah: Mengimbas kembali Dalam sejarah perkembangan pendidikan sains sekolah rendah di Malaysia, ia boleh disimpulkan bahawa perubahan kurikulum adalah satu inovasi (Kementerian Pelajaran dan UNESCO, 1988; SEAMEO-RECSAM, 1983; SEAMEO-RECSAM, 1973). Perubahan ini juga merupakan multidimensi dalam erti kata lain ia melibatkan sekurang-kurangnya tiga dimensi dalam pelaksanaannya (Fullan, 1991). Komponen-komponennya adalah seperti berikut: (i)penggunaan bahan-bahan kurikulum yang disemak semulaatau baharu atau berteknologi; ii)penggunaan pendekatan baharu; (iii)pengubahsuaian kepercayaan, contohnya, andaian pedagogi dan teori berkenaan polisi baharu atau inovasi. Di Malaysia, semua perubahan kurikulum yang berlaku akan dilaksanakan oleh Kementerian Pendidikan dan ak an disebarkan kepada semua sekolah-sekolah di negara ini. 2. 1Kajian Alam Semulajadi Pada akhir abad kesembilan belas hingga pertengahan abad kedua puluh, sains diajar di sekolah rendah sebagai Kajian Alam Semulajadi, melibatkan pengetahuan tentang fakta-fakta dan hukum-hukum alam semulajadi sebagai asas penyiasatan saintifik.This approach had the advantage that students were encouraged to learn through careful observation and classification, but it ignored much of the natural environment that had an impact on students’ lives(Keeves and Aikenhead, 1995). Pengajaran sains di peringkat sekolah rendah telah dilaksanakan dalam semua bidang (botani, biologi, sains bumi, kimia dan fizik) secara beransur-ansur dan dihubungkaitkan dengan persekitaran dan pengalaman seharian murid. 2. 2Projek Khas KajianAlam Semulajadi telahdigantikan dengansukatan pelajaranSainsRendahpada tahun 1965.Inovasiini telah diadaptasikandariNuffield Junior Science project,UK (1964),tetapidisesuaikandengan ke perluantempatan. Kurikulumberasaskan subjek, di manatumpuan adalahpadapenguasaanpengetahuan saintifikdan bukannyaciri-cirimurid. Kebanyakanguru-gurusainsdisekolah rendah, terutamanyadi kawasan luar bandar mempunyai latar belakangpendidikan yang rendah (terdiri darigredenamhinggasembilaniaituhanya enamhinggasembilan tahunpersekolahanasas) tetapijuga telahmenerima latihanprofesionalyangtidak mencukupidalammetodologisains dan kandungan dalam mata pelajaranitusendiri.Mereka jugadilatih sebagai guru untukmengajarsemuamata pelajaransekolahrendah. Banyakamalan dalam bilik darjahberpusatkanbuku teks danpenghafalannota. Pencapaian prestasi murid-murid didapati lemah di sekolah-sekolah rendah luar bandar, terutamanya dalam bidang sains, maka Kementerian Pelajaran telah memperkenalkan Projek Sains Rendah Khas (Projek Khas) pada tahun 1968. Projek ini menggunakan pendekatan baharu untuk pengajaran sains bagi sukatan pelajaran yang sedia ada.Rasional memperkenalkan pendekatan pengajaran yang bah aru dan bukannya perubahan kurikulum adalah kerana Kementerian Pelajaran mendapati bahawa guru-guru sudah biasa dengan sukatan pelajaran yang sedia ada. Langkah ini telah mengurangkan trauma guru-guru terhadap perubahan kurikulum. Kurikulum telah diambil daripada Council Science 5 – 13 project, UK(1967) dan projek-projek sains yang lain di Amerika Syarikat, seperti Science- A Process Approach (1967), yang telah dilaksanakan pada masa itu, tetapi disesuaikan dengan keperluan tempatan.Ia menekankan pengajaran berpusatkan murid, berorientasikan aktiviti, dan pembelajaran penemuan melalui penggunaan buku kerja. Ia juga menyediakan perkhidmatan sokongan guru yang berterusan dalam melaksanakan sukatan pelajaranyang sedia ada, terutamanya di kawasan luar bandar. Buku Panduan guru, buku kerja dan bahan-bahan yang digunakan adalah berorientasikan penyiasatan telah dihasilkan untuk Darjah Satu ke Darjah Enam. Ketua Pengarah Pelajaran pada masa itu, Haji Hamdan bin Sheikh Tahir, menulis dalam halaman pengenalan semua buku panduan, Objective of this Special Project is to equip teachers with new teaching methodology in the hope of generating pupils who will be able to experiment and think and really know all the concepts that will be taught by the teacher. All the activities suggested in the guide-book will reduce the pupils’ reliance on rote learning and encourage them to gain experiences in a concept that is taught. It is hoped that pupils will be attracted to science not only in the primary schools but also in the secondary schools. † (Standard One Science Guide-book, 1971)Pada tahun 1970, satu pelan tindakan telah disediakan bertujuan untuk menentukan tarikh bagi melengkapkan setiap fasa dalam projek khas ini. Pensyarah-pensyarah maktab latihan guru dan guru-guru sekolah sains rendah telah dihantar berkursus di luar negara untuk mendapatkan pengalaman terus berkenaan model kurikulum dan bahan-bahan yang digunakan di sana dan membuat penyesuaian untu k keperluan tempatan. Apabila kembali ke tanahair, mereka dipinjamkan ke Pusat Sains, kini Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum (CDC) untuk menulis dan menyediakan buku panduan guru.Penulisan buku panduan mengikuti pola umum. Pertama, sukatan pelajaran standard yang diberikan telah dikaji semula dan dibincang bersama semua kakitangan yang terlibat dalam pendidikan sains seperti pensyarah universiti, pelatih guru, pemeriksa sekolah, pembangun kurikulum dan guru-guru. Topik-topik yang disusun semula(jikaperlu), dan jenis pengalaman yang boleh disediakan bagi murid-murid telah dikenal pasti. Seterusnya, pelbagai sumber telah diteliti untuk idea-idea yang relevan dan berguna.Kemudian, pendekatan umum yang digariskan telah dilaksanakan kajian rintis dan draf telah dikaji semula. Akhir sekali, buku panduanini telah siap ditulis, hasildari bengkel-bengkelpenulisan, pengumpulanbahan-bahankurikulumdariseluruhdunia, terutamanya bahan-bahan dariprojek-projekyangtelahdisokong olehpenyelidikan dankajian rintis yang dikendalikandalam situasibilik darjahsebenar. Malangnya, bahan-bahan yangdisimpantelahmusnah dalam kebakarandi Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum sekitarbulanApril, 1997.Beberapa sekolah-sekolah khas yang dikenali sebagai ‘pusat-pusat aktiviti' telah ditubuhkan untuk menampung penyebaran pengetahuan dan sumber untuk guru sekolah rendah di semua negeri. Guru-guru juga dilatih untuk menjadi juru latih utama bagi projel khas ini. Pada tahun 1970, empat puluh guru dari tiga puluh pusat-pusat ini telah dilatih khas di Kuala Lumpur. Guru-guru yang dilantik sebagai jurulatih, kemudian kembali ke sekolah-sekolah mereka masing-masing untuk melatih guru-guru yang mengajar Darjah Satu pada tahun 1971 untuk menggunakan panduan-buku dan lembaran kerja.Latihan ini diteruskan sehingga Darjah Enam. Oleh itu, juru latih utama dan guru-guru yang dilatih oleh mereka dalam kursus-kursus dalam perkhidmatan bukan sahaja dilatih, tetapi juga bertindak sebagai agen perubahan di sekolah-sekolah mereka dengan menyebarkan teknik-teknik yang diperoleh kepada guru-guru lain. Guru juga dimaklumkan tentang bahan-bahan pengajaran yang terkini dan maklum balas melalui edaran buletin yang dihasilkan oleh ‘pusat-pusat aktiviti'. Soal selidik menilai juga telah diberikan kepada guru-guru untuk memantau proses pelaksanaan dan membuat penambahbaikan berdasarkan maklum balas dan cadangan.Sepanjang projek ini, pensyarah maktab latihan guru juga terlibat dalam menyumbangkan kepakaran dan memberi latihan. Walau bagaimanapun, kekurangan tenaga pengajar terlatih menghalang aliran latihan dan pelaksanaan inovasi. Jadualperancanganyang tidak realistikgagalmengambil kiramasalahyang wujudsemasapelaksanaan. LaporanyangdibuatolehperwakilanMalaysiadiseminarSEAMEO-RECSAM pada tahun 1973bertajuk InovasiDalamKurikulumSainsSekolah Rendah DanMatematikDanMasalahPelaksanaanDi Malaysia. â€Å"The cost of curriculum development and implementation has got to be paid in time, not merely in cash and pe rsonnel.The ultimate price of having to untangle knots of mis-implementation as a result of hurried efforts will be more than whatever time is saved in pushing through an ill-planned ‘crash programme. † (Ali Razak, 1973; p. 218) Tiada jalan pintas untuk pembangunan kurikulum. Walaupun pada mulanya dirancang untuk melengkapkan penulisan buku panduan dalam tempoh dua tahun, tetapi akhirnya ia mengambil masa empat tahun. Proses pelaksanaan mengambil masa selama tujuh tahun. 2. 3Alam dan ManusiaPandangan lain mengenai pembangunan dan pelaksanaan ‘Projek Khas' telah diminta. Seorang yang bukan ahli sains, Tan Sri Profesor Awang Had Salleh (1983), yang merupakan Naib Canselor Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia pada masa itu, telah diminta memberi komen dan mengulas mengenai kurikulum sains sekolah rendah. It does provide for what might be called science literacy, but the orientation of the syllabus is towards mastery of scientific facts with little emphasis on social and rel igious meaning and significance of scientific discoveries.In other words, the syllabus is cognitively orientated with little attention given to the affective domain of educational objectives†¦ The orientation of the textbooks reinforces memory work and encourages very little, if at all, enquiry skills. .. The teaching of science subjects seems to be guided almost entirely by two powerful variables, namely, examination and textbooks. † (Awang Had Salleh, 1983; p. 63 – 64) Pandangan-pandangan ini mewujudkan beberapan persoalan : â€Å"What is science education for? What kind of pupils and society do we want to produce? Pandangan-pandangan ini menyebabkan perubahan radikal dalam pendidikan sains. Ia termasuk pendekatan pelbagai disiplin kepada pendidikan sains di mana motivasi untuk belajar dipermudahkan melalui kandungan sains kepada masalah sebenar alam sekitar. Penekanan diberi kepada kemahiran asas dalam pendidikan dan sains yang merupakan sebahagian daripada isi kandungan dalam mata pelajaran. Alam dan Manusia dalam KBSR. Kurikulum itu diperkenalkan pada tahun 1982 sebagai kajian rintis dan dilaksanakan sepenuhnya di semua sekolah rendah pada tahun 1983.Terdapat tiga komponen utama dalam mata pelajaran Alam dan Manusia iaitu: manusia, alam sekitar, dan interaksi manusia dan alam sekitar. Hubungan antara ketiga-tiga komponen itu ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 1. Bersepadu adalah perkataan yang utama dalam kurikulum sebagai kaedah untuk mengurangkan beban kandungan dan komponen-komponen disiplin dalam kurikulum yang terdahulu. Bersepadu dalam merentas kurikulum merangkumi sains, sejarah, geografi, sains kesihatan dan sivik. Terdapat juga kajian persekitaran untuk mewujudkan perkaitan sains sosial kepada dunia di luar bilik darjah.Kesepaduan hubungan antara manusia dan alam sekitar wujud melalui pendekatan siasatan dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Di samping itu, terdapat kesepaduan antara bidang, di mana kandungan kurikulum dimasukkan ke dalam st ruktur konsep dimana terdapat tema konsep tertentu melalui proses inkuiri. Komunikasi Nilai Murni Sains sosial Sains Kesihatan Manusia Dunia Fizikal PendidikansiansKreativiti Hubungan Kemahiran Hidup alamsekitar Sains dan Teknologi Alam sekeliling Rajah 1 : Kerangka Alam dan Manusia (Source: Sufean Hussain et. al. , 1988). Mata pelajaran Alam dan Manusia menekankan tiga aspek yang luas. Pertama, untuk membangunkan pengetahuan murid mengenai manusia, alam sekitar, masyarakat dan interaksi antara mereka. Kedua, untuk meningkatkan kemahiran siasatan dan pemikiran dan penggunaan kemahiran ini dalam menyelesaikan masalah.Ketiga, untuk menerapkan nilai-nilai moral dan sikap murid-murid ke arah hidup yang harmoni dalam masyarakat majmuk (‘ Alam dan Manusia ‘ sukatan pelajaran, 1984). Terdapat lima tema utama dalam sukatan Alam dan Manusia. Ianya bertujuan supaya murid-murid dapat memahami, menghargai dan menyemai kasih sayang terhadap alam sekitar dan dengan itu, membangunkan cintakan negara. Tidak seperti Projek Khas yang diperkenalkan mulai Tahun Satu hingga Tahun Enam , Alam dan Manusia mula diperkenalkan di peringkat tahap dua iaitu dari Tahun Empat hingga Tahun Enam .Bagi melaksanakan kurikulum baru ini, diadakan kursus orientasi selama satu minggu kepada guru-guru sains . Selepas kursus itu, pihak Kementerian Pendidikan menganggap bahawa tugas mereka telah di pertanggungjawabkan kepada guru-guru dan tiada sebab untuk mereka mengatakan bahawa mereka tidak mempunyai pengetahuan yang mencukupi dan cara untuk mengajar subjek sains (Syed Zin, 1990). Batasan inovasi ini digambarkan oleh Syed Zin (1990) kajian ke atas pelaksanaannya di empat buah sekolah rendah di Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia.Antara batasan utama ialah kekurangan kompetensi guru-guru dalam mengintegrasikan kandungan subjek dan menggunakan pendekatan siasatan dalam pengajaran, kurangnya latihan dalam perkhidmatan dan sokongan profesional dari segi kakitangan dan kepakaran; kekangan fizikal se perti saiz kelas yang besar dan kemudahan yang tidak mencukupi; kurang jelas dalam reka bentuk inovasi; kekaburan dalam spesifikasi kurikulum dan skop dan jarak masa yang tidak mencukupi antara percubaan dan pelaksanaan inovasi bagi penambahbaikan yang dibuat.Akibat daripada inovasi, guru-guru telah dibebani dengan beban kerja tambahan, mengakibatkan guru menjadi cemas, hilang keyakinan dalam pengajaran, bergantung kepada buku teks dan tidak memaksimumkan penggunaan bahan-bahan kurikulum. Pelaksanaan kurikulum ini hanya berlaku sebahagian sahaja kerana guru-guru tidak menggunakan strategi pedagogi dan bahan-bahan yang dicadangkan. Guru-guru masih menekankan pemerolehan pengetahuan melalui fakta ,melalui kaedah deduktif berbanding dengan pendekatan siasatan. Tiada bukti bahawa ada perubahan dalam kepercayaan dan nilai guru ke arah inovasi.Alam dan Manusia , menekankan kurikulum humanistik iaitu kesepaduan disiplin, pendekatan siasatan dalam pembelajaran, meningkatkan kemahiran berfik ir dan penerapan nilai-nilai moral. Kajian Alam Semulajadi dan Sains Rendah adalah relevan dalam pendekatan pengajaran sains. Ia dapat menarik minat kanak-kanak dan memberi makna kepada kanak-kanak kerana berkaitan dengan pengalaman harian mereka. Ia disesuaikan dengan perkembangan kognitif mereka. Dalam Projek Khas, pendekatan baru dalam pengajaran melalui penggunaan buku panduan dan bahan-bahan yang sesuai untuk membangunkan kognitif kanak-kanak diberi tumpuan. 2. 4Sains KBSR.Sukatan pelajaran sains sekolah rendah dalam KBSR telah digubal berpandukan Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan dan prinsip-prinsip Rukunegara. KBSR adalah pendekatan bersepadu kepada pengetahuan, kemahiran dan nilai-nilai, pembangunan keseluruhan individu, peluang sama rata untuk pendidikan dan pendidikan sepanjang hayat. Tujuan utama KBSR adalah untuk menyediakan pendidikan asas untuk semua murid-murid dan memastikan perkembangan potensi murid-murid. secara menyeluruh. Perkembangan potensi murid-murid secara men yeluruh termasuk pembangunan intelek, rohani, fizikal dan emosi serta pembangunan diri dan memupuk nilai-nilai moral serta sikap.Sukatan pelajaran sains sekolah rendah direka untuk menampung prinsip-prinsip dan matlamat KBSR. (a)Matlamat dan Objektif KBSR Matlamat sukatan pelajaran sains sekolah rendah adalah untuk memupuk budaya sains dan teknologi dengan memberi tumpuan kepada pembangunan individu yang dapat menguasai pengetahuan dan kemahiran saintifik, memiliki nilai-nilai moral, dinamik dan progresif supaya ada tanggungjawab terhadap alam sekitar dan menghargai alam semula jadi. (Buku Panduan KBSR , Kementerian Pelajaran, 1993). Ini dapat dicapai dengan menyediakan peluang pembelajaran untuk murid-murid untuk belajar melalui pengalaman supaya mereka akan dapat; membangunkan kemahiran berfikir †¢ membangunkan kemahiran saintifik siasatan †¢ meningkatkan minat terhadap alam sekitar †¢ memahami diri dan persekitaran mereka melalui pemerolehan pengetahuan, pemahaman, fakta dan konsep †¢ menyelesaikan masalah dan membuat keputusan yang bertanggungjawab †¢ menangani sumbangan dan inovasi terkini dalam bidang sains dan teknologi †¢ mengamalkan nilai-nilai moral dan sikap saintifik dalam kehidupan seharian †¢ menghargai sumbangan sains dan teknologi kepada kehidupan yang lebih baik †¢ menghargai perintah dan penciptaan alam (Buku Panduan Sukatan Pelajaran Sains Sekolah Rendah, 1993, ms. ) Menurut Lewis dan Potter (1970) objektif di atas boleh diklasifikasikan kepada tiga tujuan utama pendidikan sains. Mereka mempercayai melalui (1) latihan kemahiran proses inkuiri (2) pemerolehan fakta dan kefahaman konsep (3) sikap yang sesuai dan dihajati dapat dikembangkan. Ketiga-tiga tujuan ini dinyatakan dalam silabus PSS sebagai objektif pencapaian yang kemudian dibahagi kepada objektif umum dan khusus bergantung kepada perkembangan kognitif murid-murid. Objektif umum adalah kenyataan untuk menerangkan pencapaian objektif yang ingin dicapai dalam domain kognitif,afektif dan psikomoto.Objektif khusus adalah huraian kepada objektif umum dan dinyatakan dalam bentuk tingkahlaku yang boleh diukur. Objektif pencapaian diiringi dengan cadangan-cadangan untuk pengalaman belajar yang membolehkan guru merancang aktiviti-aktiviti yang bersesuaian bagi mencapai objektif. (b)Kemahiran proses dan kemahiran berfikir Penguasaan kemahiran proses, kemahiran manipulatif dan kemahiran berfikir adalah ditekankan dalam sukatan PSS (Primary School Science/ Sains Sekolah Rendah). Ketiga-tiga kemahiran tersebut adalah saling berkaitan dengan pemikiran secara kritikal,kreatif dan analitik .Kemahiran proses yang dikenalpasti adalah kemahiran memerhati, mengkelasan,mengukur dan menggunakan nombor,membuat inferen,membuat ramalan, berkomunikasi, mengenalpasti hubungan ruang dan masa,mengintepretasi data, mendefinasi secara operasi, mengawal dan memanipulasi pembolehubah,membina hipotesis dan mengeksperimen. Kemahiran manipulatif adalah kema hiran psikomotor seperti mengendali,membersih dan menyimpan alat radas sains, mengendali secara selamat spesimen hidup, dan melukis secara betul spesinen dan alat radas (PSS Syllabus Handbook, 1993 m. s. 3 – 5). (c)Sikap dan nilaiSukatan PSS juga untuk menyemai sikap saintifik dan nilai yang positif ke dalam diri murid seperti minat , sifat ingin tahu kepada dunia disekeliling, kejujuran, ketepatan dalam mereko, mengesahkan data,keluwesan dan keterbukaan minda,kesabaran,kerjasama,bertanggungjawab terhadap diri sendiri,orang lain dan alam sekitar,bersyukur kepada tuhan dan menghargai sumbangan sains dan teknologi perkembangan positif sikap dan nilai perlu menjadi matlamat akhir pendidikan. (PSS Syllabus Handbook, 1993, m. s. 3 – 6). Menurut Lewis dan Potter (1970), (d)Isi kandungan PSS dilihat sebagai suatu bidang ilmu dan juga sebagai pendekatan inkuiri.Sebagai suatu bidang ilmu,sains menyediakan suatu kerangka untuk murid-murid memahami persekitaran mereka melalui apl ikasi prinsip sains dalam kehidupan harian. Pendekatan inkuiri membolehkan murid melakukan penyiasatan pada dunia di sekeliling mereka. Ini akan menggalakkan muridmenjadi kreatif,berfikiran terbuka,toleransi ,mencintai dan menghargai alam sekitar. Prinsip kesepaduan dikekalkan dalam sukatan PSS sejajar dengan KBSR. Wujud kesepaduan yang merentasi matapelajaran lain seperti biologi,fizik dan kimia melalui penggunaan konsep dan proses sains. Pendekatan secara tema digunakan dalam mengolah isi kandungan .Pada tahap I sekolah rendah dalam Tahun 1, isi kandungan dibahagikan kepada dua bahagian: Bahagian A dan B . Pada Tahap II sekolah rendah, tema dibina mengenai manusia dan penerokaan persekitaran. Lima bidang penyiasatan adalah: 0 Alam Hidupan 1 Alam Fizikal 2 Alam Bahan 3 Bumi Dan Alam Semesta 4 Dunia Teknologi Persekitaran hidup menyiasat keperluan asas dan proses kehidupan manusia,binatang dan tumbuhan. Alam fizikal menyentuh konsep ruang dan masa dan fenomena tenaga. Alam bahan mem buat perbandingan antara bahan semulajadi dan bahan buatan manusia . unia dan alam semesta meneliti bumi dan hubungannya dengan matahari,bulan dan planet-planet lain dalam sistem solar. Akhirnya dunia teknologi, menyiasat perkembangan teknologi dalam bidang pertanian,komunikasi,pengangkutan dan pembinaan dan sumbangannya dalam kesejahteraan kehidupan manusia. Setiap bidang penerokaan adalah untuk mencapai kesepaduan dalaman secara melintang supaya apa yang dipelajari hari ini mampu dihubungkaitkan dengan apa yang dipelajari kelmarin dan apa yang akan dipelajari esok dan kesepaduan menegak supaya apa yang dipelajari dalam sesuatu bidang seharusnya berkait dengan bidang penerokaan yang lain.Satu ciri yang penting tentang sains adalah setiap murid seharusnya mencapai tahap minimum kefahaman dan pengalaman dalam setiap disiplin sains. (e) Strategi pengajaran Sukatan PSS merujuk kepada dua pandangan tentang pembelajaran sains. ; pandangan proses dan pandangan konstruktivis. Pandangan pro ses menyokong pendekatan inkuiri (Livermore, 1964). pandangan konstruktivis menyokong kenyataan bahawa murid mengambil bahagian secara aktif dan kreatif dalam membina ilmu kendiri berasaskan pengetahuan sedia ada mereka dari pengalaman yang lalu. (Duit dan Treagust, 1995; Harlen, 1992).Oleh yang demikian strategi pengajaran yang digunakan untuk pengajaran dan pembelajaran sains adalah pembelajaran secara penemuan di mana hasil pembelajaran adalah akiviti-aktiviti murid-murid dan bukan berpusatkan guru. Peranan guru hanya sebagai fasilitator,menyediakan pengalaman ‘hands-on’ menggalakkan murid bertanyakan soalan di mana jawapan akan di cari secara inkuiri tidak hanya menyampaikan ilmu. Guru membimbing murid untuk meneroka sendiri prinsip-prinsip dan konsep sains dengan mengguna idea sendiri untuk melakukan eksperimen,perbincangan,simulasi dan projek. PSS Syllabus Handbook, 1993, m. s. 9). (f)Bahan-Bahan Kurikulum ‘Curriculum materials are basic essentials of scient ific activity in the primary school’ (The International Encyclopaedia of Education, Vol. 9). (i)Tahap I sekolah rendah (Tahun 1,2 dan 3) Dalam PSS (Primary School Science ) Tahap 1 (diimplementasi pada Januari 2003 dalam bahasa Inggeris ),bahan-bahan kukrikulum adalah dalam bentuk pakej yang mengandungi buku panduan guru ,buku aktiviti untuk murid, huraian sukatan untuk guru dan CD-ROMs sebagai sokongan dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran.Guru-guru yang mengajar sains juga dibekalkan dengan komputer riba dan LCD untuk mengintegrasikan penggunaan teknologi ke dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran sains. (ii)Tahap II sekolah rendah ( Tahun 4,5 and 6) Dalam tahun 4, 5 dan 6 (diimplementasi pada Disember 1994 dalam Bahasa Inggeris), bahan-bahan kurikulum adalah dalam bentuk pakej yang mengandungi buku teks guru,buku teks murid, buku pukal bimbingan dan latihan (PULSAR) untuk guru yang mengandungi 12 modul. Guru juga menggunakan pelbagai buku teks komersial,buku kerja,carta dan bahan lu t sinar. g)Kumpulan sasaran PSS adalah wajib bagi semua murid-murid di sekolah rendah (h)Peruntukan masa Di sekolah rendah, matapelajaran sains diperuntukan 3 waktu seminggu selama 30 minit setiap waktu manakala di sekolah menengah diperuntukkan 5 waktu seminggu selama 30 minit setiap waktu. (i)Pentaksiran Prosedur Pentaksiran dalam KSSR terdiri dari dua bahagian: pentaksiran formatif dan pentaksiran sumatif. Murid-murid ditaksir pada tiga aspek sukatan pelajaran; pengetahuan,kemahiran,sikap dan nilai (KSSR Syllabus Handbook, 1993, m. s. 11- 12).Pentaksiran formatif adalah pentaksiran berasaskan sekolah dalam bentuk ujian bertulis,ujian amali,projek,portfolio, kerja lisan dan kerja kumpulan. Tujuan utama adalah untuk mengesan kelemahan murid dan memperkasakan pembelajaran. Pentaksiran sumatif biasanya terbahagi kepada dua iaitu pentaksiran kerja amali (PEKA) dan UPSR. PEKA adalah penilaian yang berterusan untuk mengukur sejauh mana murid-murid telah menguasai kemahiran proses sains dan kemahiran manipulatif sains (Guide to PEKA, 1997). Ianya telah di implementasi dalam tahun enam untuk tempoh enam bulan.Berdasarkan kepada penialaian berasaskan kriteria yang dibangunkan oleh Lembaga Peperiksaan Malaysia ,KPM, guru-guru merancang beberapa siri eksperimen untuk menilai murid di dalam bilik darjah. Instrumen penilaian adalah skala berkadar dan portfolio. Murid-murid dinilai pada lapan kemahiran proses; memerhati, membuat pengkelasan, mengukur dan menggunakan nombor, berkomunikasi, menggunakkan hubungan ruang-masa, mendefinisikan secara operasi, mengawal pembolehubah-pembolehubah dan menjalankan eksperimen.Mereka juga akan dinilai pada lima kemahiran manipulatif; mengguna dan mengendalikan bahan-bahan dan alat radas sains dengan betul, mengendalikan spesimen yang mati dan hidup dengan selamat, melukis specimen,bahan dan alat radas dengan tepat, membersihkan alat radas sains dengan betul, dan menyimpan bahan dan alatan sains denan baik dan selamat. Pentaksiran kepad a aptitud, sikap dan nilai juga dibina dalam item ujian PEKA. Pentaksiran lain adalah UPSR, di mana ianya merupakan suatu bentuk penilaian bertujuan untuk melihat sejauh mana sistem pendidikan menyediakan murid-murid untuk kurikulum sekolah menengah.Ianya adalah ujian bertulis yang mengandungi dua bahagian; bahagian A dan bahagian B. Bahagian A mengandungi tiga puluh soalan aneka pilihan dan bahagian B mengandungi lima soalan berstruktur. Peruntukan markah untuk bahagian A adalah 30 markah dan bahagian B adalah 20 markah. Penekanan diberikan kepada soalan-soalan dalam bahagian B yang menguji kebolehan murid-murid berfikir secara kritis dan kreatif. Untuk mendapat keputusan yang baik dalam peperiksaan sains, murid harus lulus pada Bahagian B. Yang menariknya markah yang dicapai dalam PEKA, tidak menyumbang terus kepada pencapaian keseluruhan markah dalam UPSR.Ini mungkin akan menjejaskan penyalahgunaan sistem dimana penilaian dalam PEKA tidak dijalankan secara serius oleh guru-guru k erana ianya bersifat terlalu subjektif. (Reference: Tan, J. N. (1999). The Development and Implementation of The Primary School Science Curriculum in Malaysia. Unpublished PhD thesis of the University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom. ) | Latihan| 1Tulis satu laporan perubahan dalam kurikulum sains sekolah rendah di Malaysia. 2. Nyatakan rasional perubahan dalam kurikulum sains sekolah rendah di Malaysia. 3.Lukis jadual untuk membuat pembandingan bagi setiap kurikulum sains sekolah rendah yang telah dilaksanakan di Malaysia, | Memikir| Kajian kurikulum sains sekolah rendah sekarang. Bincangkan dan tulis laporan sama ada kurikulum ini adalah adaptasi, pengubahsuaian atau pendekatan baru daripada kurikulum sebelumnya. Rujukan Tan, J. N. (1999). The Development and Implementation of The Primary School Science Curriculum in Malaysia. Unpublished PhD thesis of the University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom. Pusat Pembangunan Kurikulum (2002). Huraian Sukatan Pelajaran Sain s. Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia | Tamat Topik 2|TAJUK 3| Kurikulum Sains Pendidikan Rendah Malaysia I| SINOPSIS Topik ini mengkaji objektif, hasil pembelajaran, penekanan, organisasi kandungan dan skop Kurikulum Sains Pendidikan Rendah Malaysia . HASIL PEMBELAJARAN 1. Menerangkan penekanan Falsafah Pendidikan Sains Kebangsaan. 2. Menyatakan matlamat dan objektif kurikulum sains sekolah rendah KBSR 3. Membincangkan cabaran-cabaran yang terlibat dalam menggabungkan kurikulum sains sekolah rendah KBSR dalam pengajaran sains. 4. Menjelaskan organisasi isi kandungan dalam kurikulum sains sekolah rendah KBSR Kerangka Tajuk-tajukRajah 3. 0 Kerangka Tajuk ISI KANDUNGAN 3. 1Objektif Matlamat kurikulum sains sekolah rendah adalah untuk memupuk minat dan kreativiti murid melalui pengalaman dan siasatan setiap hari yang menggalakkan pemerolehan pengetahuan sains dan kemahiran berfikir disamping menerapkan sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai murni. 3. 2Hasil Pembelajaran Peringkat satu Kurikulum S ains bertujuan : 1. Memupuk minat dan merangsang perasaan ingin tahu murid tentang dunia di sekeliling mereka. 2. Menyediakan murid dengan peluang-peluang untuk mengembangkan kemahiran proses sains dan kemahiran berfikir. . Membangunkan kreativiti murid. 4. Menyediakan murid dengan pengetahuan asas dan konsep sains 5. Menyemai sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai positif. 6. Menyedari kepentingan memelihara dan menyayangi alam sekitar Peringkat dua Kurikulum Sains bertujuan : 1. Memupuk minat dan merangsang perasaan ingin tahu murid tentang dunia di sekeliling mereka. 2. Menyediakan murid dengan peluang-peluang untuk mengembangkan kemahiran proses sains dan kemahiran berfikir. 3. Membangunkan kreativiti murid. 4. Menyediakan murid dengan pengetahuan asas dan konsep sains 5.Menyediakan peluang pembelajaran untuk murid mengaplikasi pengetahuan dan kemahiran secara kreatif, kritikal dan analitikal bagi menyelesaikan masalah dan membuat keputusan. 6. Menyemai sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai positif. 7. Menghargai sumbangan sains dan teknologi ke arah pembangunan negara dan kesejahteraan manusia. 8. Menyedari kepentingan memelihara dan menyayangi alam sekitar 3. 3Penekanan Sains menekankan penyiasatan dan penyelesaikan masalah. Dalam penyiasatan dan proses penyelesaian masalah, kemahiran dan pemikiran saintifik digunakan.Kemahiran saintifik penting dalam mana-mana penyiasatan saintifik seperti menjalankan eksperimen dan projek. Kemahiran saintifik terdiri daripada kemahiran proses sains dan kemahiran manipulasi Berfikir merupakan satu proses mental yang memerlukan seseorang individu mengintegrasikan pengetahuan, kemahiran dan sikap dalam usaha memahami alam sekitar. Salah satu objektif sistem pendidikan negara adalah untuk meningkatkan keupayaan berfikir murid-murid. Objektif ini boleh dicapai melalui kurikulum yang menekankan pembelajaran berfikrah. Pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang menekankan kemahiran berfikir adalah asas untuk pembelajaran berfikrah.Pembelajaran berf ikrah dapat dicapai sekiranya murid terlibat secara aktif dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Aktiviti perlu dirancang untuk memberi peluang kepada murid menggunakan kemahiran berfikir dalam pengkonseptualan, menyelesaikan masalah dan membuat keputusan. Kemahiran berfikir boleh dikategorikan kepada kemahiran pemikiran kritis dan kreatif. Seseorang yang berfikir secara kritis sentiasa menilai sesuatu idea secara sistematik sebelum menerimanya. Seseorang yang berfikir secara kreatif mempunyai tahap imaginasi yang tinggi, mampu untuk menjana idea-idea asal dan inovatif, dan mengubah suai idea dan produk.Strategi pemikiran adalah kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi yang melibatkan pelbagai langkah. Setiap langkah melibatkan pelbagai kemahiran berfikir kritis dan kreatif. Keupayaan untuk merangka strategi pemikiran adalah bermatlamat untuk memperkenalkan aktiviti-aktiviti berfikir dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran . Pengalaman pembelajaran sains boleh digunakan sebagai satu cara untuk m enyemai sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai murni dalam diri pelajar. Penerapan sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai murni secara amnya berlaku melalui perkara berikut * Menyedari kepentingan dan keperluan sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai murni. Memberi penekanan kepada sikap dan nilai-nilai ini. * Mengamal dan menghayati sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai murni Apabila merancang aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran, guru perlu memberi pertimbangan yang sewajarnya kepada perkara di atas bagi memastikan penerapan sikap dan nilai saintifik yang berterusan . 3. 4Organisasi Kandungan Kurikulum sains dianjurkan secara bertema. Setiap tema terdiri daripada pelbagai bidang pembelajaran, setiap satunya terdiri daripada beberapa objektif pembelajaran. Objektif pembelajaran mempunyai satu atau lebih hasil pembelajaran.Hasil pembelajaran ditulis dengan menyatakan hasil tingkah laku yang boleh diukur, kriteria dan situasi. Secara umum, hasil pembelajaran bagi setiap objektif pembelajaran dinyatakan tahap ke sukarannya. Walau bagaimanapun, dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran, aktiviti-aktiviti pembelajaran harus dirancang dengan cara yang holistik dan bersepadu yang membolehkan pencapaian hasil pembelajaran yang pelbagai mengikut keperluan dan konteks tertentu. Guru seharusnya mengelak daripada menggunakan strategi pengajaran yang mengasingkan setiap hasil pembelajaran yang dinyatakan di dalam Spesifikasi Kurikulum.Cadangan Aktiviti Pembelajaran memberi maklumat tentang skop dan dimensi hasil pembelajaran. Aktiviti-aktiviti pembelajaran yang dinyatakan di bawah lajur Cadangan Aktiviti Pembelajaran diberi dengan tujuan untuk menyediakan beberapa panduan tentang bagaimana hasil pembelajaran boleh dicapai. Aktiviti yang dicadangkan boleh meliputi satu atau lebih hasil pembelajaran. Guru boleh mengubahsuai cadangan aktiviti yang sesuai dengan kebolehan dan gaya pembelajaran murid-murid mereka. Guru juga digalakkan mereka bentuk aktiviti pembelajaran yang inovatif dan berkesan untuk men ingkatkan pembelajaran sains . | Latihan|Jawab soalan-soalan berikut. (Rujuk Kurikulum Spesifikasi Sains Rendah. ) Kurikulum Sains Pendidikan Rendah Malaysia I 1. Berikan dua dokumen penting yang mesti dirujuk oleh guru bagi memahami Kurikulum Sains Rendah. Apakah tujuan utama setiap dokumen tersebut? 2. Kurikulum Sains Rendah digubal selaras dengan Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan (FPK). Nyatakan empat elemen penting yang ditekankan dalam FPK 3. Nyatakan matlamat Kurikulum Sains Rendah. Bagaimana matlamat ini selaras dengan aspirasi FPK? 4. Senarai semua objektif Kurikulum Sains Rendah. Apakah perbezaan di antara objektif kurtikulum Tahap I dan Tahap II? . Berikan tiga penekanan utama / unsur-unsur Kurikulum Sains Rendah. Bincangkan cabaran-cabaran dalam menggabungkan penekanan ini ke dalam pelajaran. 6. Senaraikan kemahiran dan nilai-nilai kurikulum yang diharap untuk dibangunkan. Mengapa kemahiran dan nilai-nilai tersebut penting? 7Dengan menggunakan pengurusan grafik yang sesuai, tunjukkan bagaimana kandungan kurikulum sains yang anda pilih dapat dibina. 8. Kurikulum Sains Sekolah dibina berdasarkan tema-tema tertentu. Tuliskan tema-tema tersebut untuk Tahap I dan Tahap II 9. Setiap Tema dalam kandungan kurikulum terdiri daripada pelbagai Bidang Pembelajaran.Bina Jadual Bidang Pembelajaran mengikut tema-tema yang sesuai bagi Tahun 1 hingga 6. Apakah yang dapat anda simpulkan tentang susunan bidang-bidang pembelajaran tersebut? Tema| Tahun 1| Tahun 2| Tahun 3| Tahun 4| Tahun 5| Tahun 6| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 10. Dalam Spesifikasi Kurikulum, organisasi kandungan ditunjukkan dengan menggunakan 5 lajur. Nama dan terangkan setiap tajuk lajur tersebut. 11. Kurikulum Sains Rendah mengintegrasikan pengetahuan, kemahiran dan nilai-nilai dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran sains.Dengan memberikan contoh-contoh yang sesuai tunjukkan bagaimana seorang guru dapat mengintegrasikan ketiga-tiga elemen tersebut dala m pelajaran sains. 12. Cadangkan strategi pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang sesuai untuk kurikulum sains sekolah rendah. Berikan penerangan ringkas tentang setiap strategi tersebut. 13. Apakah tiga aspek yang dinilai dalam kurikulum sains sekolah rendah dan bagaimanakah aspek tersebut dinilai? | Bahan Bacaan dan Internet | Banding bezakan Kurikulum Sains Sekolah Rendah di Malaysia dan New Zealand dari segi objektif, penekanan dan skop. (New Zealand Primary Science Curriculum: ttp://www. tki. org. nz/r/science/curriculum/toc_e. php ) Rujukan Pusat Pembangunan Kurikulum (2002). Huraian Sukatan Pelajaran Sains. Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia Ministry of Education, Wellington, New Zealand (2002). Science in the New Zealand Curriculum. Retrieved on 10 Sept. 2009 from: http://www. tki. org. nz/r/science/curriculum/toc_e. php | Tamat Topik 3| TAJUK 4| Kurikulum Sains Pendidikan Rendah Malaysia II | SINOPSIS Topik ini membincangkan amalan-amalan yang baik dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran sa ins. Ia merangkumi pelbagai strategi, aktiviti-aktiviti pembelajaran dan prosedur pentaksiran.HASIL PEMBELAJARAN 1. Mengenalpasti masalah-masalah dalam pembelajaran sains 2. Menghuraikan pelbagai strategi, aktiviti dan pentaksiran yang boleh di implementasi dalam pembelajaran sains.. KERANGKA TAJUK Rajah 4. 0 Kerangka Tajuk ISI KANDUNGAN 4. 1Strategi Pengajaran dan pembelajaran Strategi pengajaran dan pembelajaran dalam kurikulum sains menekankan kepada pembelajaran berfikrah. Pembelajaran berfikrah adalah suatu proses yang boleh membantu murid-murid menguasai ilmu pengetahuan dan kemahiran yang akan membantu mereka untuk membangun pemikiran ketahap optimum.Pembelajaran sains berfikrar boleh dicapai melalui pendekatan yang pelbagai seperti inkuiri, konstruktivisme, pembelajaran kontektual dan pembelajaran masteri. Oleh yang demikian aktiviti pembelajaran perlu dirancangkan kepada merangsang pemikiran kraeatif dan kritis murid-murid dan tidak hanya tertumpu kepada pembelajaran secara rutin atau kebiasaan. Murid-murid harus menyedari tentang kemahiran berfikir dan strategi berfikir yang mereka gunakan dalam pembelajaran . Mereka harus di cabar dengan masalah dan soalan-soalan aras tinggi untuk menyelesaikan masalah yang memerlukan kepada penyelesaian masalah.Proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran seharusnya dapat membolehkan murid-murid menguasai ilmu pengetahuan, kemahiran dan memperkembangkan sikap saintifik dan nilai murni secara bersepadu 4. 2Aktiviti Pembelajaran Kepelbagaian kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran mampu meningkatkan minat murid-murid dalam pembelajaran sains. Kelas sains yang tidak menarik akan menjejaskan motivasi murid untuk belajar sains dan ini akan mempengaruhi pencapaian mereka. Pemilihan kaedah pengajaran perlu memenuhi kehendak kurikulum, kebolehan murid, kecerdasan pelbagai murid, dan kemudahan sumber pengajaran dan pembelajaran dan infrastruktur.Aktiviti-aktiviti yang pelbagai harus dirancang untuk murid-murid yang mempunyai gaya pembelaj aran dan kecerdasan yang berbeza-beza. Berikut adalah penjelasan ringkas tentang kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran. 4. 2. 1Eksperimen Eksperimen adalah kaedah yang biasa digunakan dalam kelas sains. Semasa melaksanakan eksperimen murid-murid menguji hipotesis melalui penyiasatan untuk menemukan konsep dan prinsip sains. Semasa menjalankan eksperimen, murid-murid menggunakan kemahiran berfikir, kemahiran saintifik dan kemahiran manipulatif.Aktiviti eksperimen boleh dilaksanakan secara bimbingan guru,atau guru memberi peluang jika bersesuaian kepada murid-murid untuk merekabentuk eksperimen mereka sendiri. Ini melibatkan murid-murid merancang eksperimen, bagaimana membuat pengukuran dan menganalisis data dan pembentangan hasil eksperimen mereka. 4. 2. 2Perbincangan Perbincangan adalah suatu aktiviti dimana murid-murid bertukar-tukar soalan dan pandangan berdasarkan alasan yang jelas. Perbincangan boleh dijalankan sebelum, semasa atau selepas sesuatu aktiviti.Guru memainkan peranan se bagai fasilitator dan memimpin perbincangan untuk merangsang pemikiran dan menggalakkan murid-murid supaya menyatakan pendapat atau pandangan mereka. 4. 2. 3Simulasi Dalam simulasi, aktiviti yang dijalankan menyerupai situasi atau keadaan sebenar. Contoh aktiviti-aktiviti simulasi adalah main peranan , permainan dan penggunaan model. Di dalam aktiviti main peranan murid-murid memainkan peranan yang tertentu berdasarkan syarat-syarat yang diberikan. Permainan memerlukan prosedur yang harus diikuti.Semasa akativiti permainan murid-murid belajar prinsip-prinsip yang spesifik atau memahami proses untuk membuat sesuatu keputusan. Model digunakan untuk mewakili objek-objek atau situasi sebenar supaya murid-murid dapat membuat gambaran mental dan memahami konsep dan prinsip sains yang hendak dipelajari. 4. 2. 4Projek Projek adalah suatu aktiviti pembelajaran yang dilakukan oleh individu atau kumpulan untuk mencapai objektif pembelajaran yang khusus. Projek memerlukan beberapa sesi pengajar an untuk diselesaikan . Hasil projek boleh berbentuk laporan, artifak,atau dalam bentuk persembahan yang akan dibentangkan oleh murid-murid atau guru.Kerja projek menggalakkan perkembangan kemahiran menyelesaikan masalah, pengurusan masa dan pembelajaran individu secara bebas . 4. 2. 5Lawatan dan penggunaan sumber luaran Pembelajaran sains tidak hanya terhad kepada aktiviti-aktiviti yang dijalankan dalam kawasan sekolah sahaja. Pembelajaran sains boleh dikembangkan lagi melalui penggunaan sumber luaran saperti zoo,muzium,pusat-pusat sains,institusi-institusi penyelidikan kawasan paya bakau dan kilang-kilang. Lawatan ke tempat-tempat berikut akan menjadikan pembelajaran sains itu lebih menarik. bermakna dan berkesan. Untuk mengoptimumkan pembelajaran lawatan perlu dirancang dengan teliti.Murid-murid perlu dilibatkan dalam membuat perancangan dan tugasan yang spesifik perlu ditetapkan sebelum lawatan. Lawatan pembelajaran ini tidak akan lengkap tanpa pos-perbincangan selepas lawatan. 4. 2. 6Penggunaan Teknologi Tekno